匈奴列传

The Xiongnu trace their ancestry to Chunwei, a descendant of the royal house of Xia. Above the ages of Tang and Yu, there were the Shanrong, Xianyun, and Hunyu peoples, who lived among the northern barbarians. They followed their livestock in seasonal migrations, their herds consisting largely of horses, cattle, and sheep, while their exotic animals included camels, donkeys, mules, fine horses, and large yak. They pursued water and grass, moving with the seasons, without fixed cities or cultivated fields, though each clan had its own territory. They had no writing, using only spoken language to maintain order. Boys who could barely walk learned to ride sheep and shoot at birds and mice with bows; as they grew older, they hunted foxes and rabbits—for food and sustenance. Any man strong enough to draw a bow became a mounted archer. Their custom was to live peacefully with their herds and hunt for subsistence, but when necessity demanded, they practiced warfare and raids, for this was their nature. Their long-range weapons were bows and arrows; their close-combat weapons were swords and daggers. When advantageous, they advanced; when not, they retreated without shame. Where profit lay, they pursued it without regard for propriety or righteousness. From rulers down to commoners, all ate livestock meat and wore leather clothing and fur coats. The strong consumed the finest fare, while the elderly ate what remained. They honored the young and robust, despised the old and weak. When a father died, his son took his stepmother as a wife; when a brother died, his brothers took his widow as their own. Among their customs, personal names were used freely without taboo, though they had no family names.

The Xiongnu trace their ancestry to Chunwei, a descendant of the royal house of Xia. Above the ages of Tang and Yu, there were the Shanrong, Xianyun, and Hunyu peoples, who lived among the northern barbarians. They followed their livestock in seasonal migrations, their herds consisting largely of horses, cattle, and sheep, while their exotic animals included camels, donkeys, mules, fine horses, and large yak. They pursued water and grass, moving with the seasons, without fixed cities or cultivated fields, though each clan had its own territory. They had no writing, using only spoken language to maintain order. Boys who could barely walk learned to ride sheep and shoot at birds and mice with bows; as they grew older, they hunted foxes and rabbits—for food and sustenance. Any man strong enough to draw a bow became a mounted archer. Their custom was to live peacefully with their herds and hunt for subsistence, but when necessity demanded, they practiced warfare and raids, for this was their nature. Their long-range weapons were bows and arrows; their close-combat weapons were swords and daggers. When advantageous, they advanced; when not, they retreated without shame. Where profit lay, they pursued it without regard for propriety or righteousness. From rulers down to commoners, all ate livestock meat and wore leather clothing and fur coats. The strong consumed the finest fare, while the elderly ate what remained. They honored the young and robust, despised the old and weak. When a father died, his son took his stepmother as a wife; when a brother died, his brothers took his widow as their own. Among their customs, personal names were used freely without taboo, though they had no family names.

The Xiongnu trace their ancestry to Chunwei, a descendant of the royal house of Xia. Above the ages of Tang and Yu, there were the Shanrong, Xianyun, and Hunyu peoples, who lived among the northern barbarians. They followed their livestock in seasonal migrations, their herds consisting largely of horses, cattle, and sheep, while their exotic animals included camels, donkeys, mules, fine horses, and large yak. They pursued water and grass, moving with the seasons, without fixed cities or cultivated fields, though each clan had its own territory. They had no writing, using only spoken language to maintain order. Boys who could barely walk learned to ride sheep and shoot at birds and mice with bows; as they grew older, they hunted foxes and rabbits—for food and sustenance. Any man strong enough to draw a bow became a mounted archer. Their custom was to live peacefully with their herds and hunt for subsistence, but when necessity demanded, they practiced warfare and raids, for this was their nature. Their long-range weapons were bows and arrows; their close-combat weapons were swords and daggers. When advantageous, they advanced; when not, they retreated without shame. Where profit lay, they pursued it without regard for propriety or righteousness. From rulers down to commoners, all ate livestock meat and wore leather clothing and fur coats. The strong consumed the finest fare, while the elderly ate what remained. They honored the young and robust, despised the old and weak. When a father died, his son took his stepmother as a wife; when a brother died, his brothers took his widow as their own. Among their customs, personal names were used freely without taboo, though they had no family names.

As the Xia dynasty declined, Gongliu lost his official position and changed his ways among the western Rong. He established a settlement at Bin. Three hundred years later, the Rong and Di attacked King Tai, who fled to the region below Mount Qi, and the people of Bin all followed him to found the Zhou state. More than a hundred years passed, and Zhou's King Wen of the West attacked the Quanyi clan. Another dozen years on, King Wu overthrew Zhou and established his capital at Luoyang, returning to dwell at Fenghao, and drove the Rong and Di barbarians beyond the Jing and Luo rivers, where they paid tribute seasonally—a relationship called "the Wild Frontier." Two hundred years later, the Zhou dynasty fell into decline, and King Mu attacked the Quanrong, returning with four white wolves and four white deer. From that time, the Wild Frontier ceased to present tribute. The Zhou then enacted the laws preserved in the "Punishments of Pu." Two hundred years after King Mu, King You of Zhou, due to his favor for his beloved concubine Bao Si, fell into conflict with the Marquis of Shen. The marquis, enraged, allied with the Quanrong to attack and kill King You below Mount Li, seizing Zhou's Jiaohuo region and settling between the Jing and Wei rivers, devastating the Central Kingdoms. Duke Xiang of Qin came to Zhou's aid, and the Zhou King Ping left Fenghao and moved eastward to Luoyang. At this time, Duke Xiang of Qin attacked the Rong as far as Mount Qi and was first enrolled among the vassal lords. Sixty-five years after this, the Shanrong crossed Yan and attacked Qi, and Duke Huan of Qi fought them in Qi's outskirts. Forty-four years later, the Shanrong attacked Yan. Yan appealed urgently to Qi, and Duke Huan marched north against the Shanrong, who fled.

As the Xia dynasty declined, Gongliu lost his official position and changed his ways among the western Rong. He established a settlement at Bin. Three hundred years later, the Rong and Di attacked King Tai, who fled to the region below Mount Qi, and the people of Bin all followed him to found the Zhou state. More than a hundred years passed, and Zhou's King Wen of the West attacked the Quanyi clan. Another dozen years on, King Wu overthrew Zhou and established his capital at Luoyang, returning to dwell at Fenghao, and drove the Rong and Di barbarians beyond the Jing and Luo rivers, where they paid tribute seasonally—a relationship called "the Wild Frontier." Two hundred years later, the Zhou dynasty fell into decline, and King Mu attacked the Quanrong, returning with four white wolves and four white deer. From that time, the Wild Frontier ceased to present tribute. The Zhou then enacted the laws preserved in the "Punishments of Pu." Two hundred years after King Mu, King You of Zhou, due to his favor for his beloved concubine Bao Si, fell into conflict with the Marquis of Shen. The marquis, enraged, allied with the Quanrong to attack and kill King You below Mount Li, seizing Zhou's Jiaohuo region and settling between the Jing and Wei rivers, devastating the Central Kingdoms. Duke Xiang of Qin came to Zhou's aid, and the Zhou King Ping left Fenghao and moved eastward to Luoyang. At this time, Duke Xiang of Qin attacked the Rong as far as Mount Qi and was first enrolled among the vassal lords. Sixty-five years after this, the Shanrong crossed Yan and attacked Qi, and Duke Huan of Qi fought them in Qi's outskirts. Forty-four years later, the Shanrong attacked Yan. Yan appealed urgently to Qi, and Duke Huan marched north against the Shanrong, who fled.

As the Xia dynasty declined, Gongliu lost his official position and changed his ways among the western Rong. He established a settlement at Bin. Three hundred years later, the Rong and Di attacked King Tai, who fled to the region below Mount Qi, and the people of Bin all followed him to found the Zhou state. More than a hundred years passed, and Zhou's King Wen of the West attacked the Quanyi clan. Another dozen years on, King Wu overthrew Zhou and established his capital at Luoyang, returning to dwell at Fenghao, and drove the Rong and Di barbarians beyond the Jing and Luo rivers, where they paid tribute seasonally—a relationship called "the Wild Frontier." Two hundred years later, the Zhou dynasty fell into decline, and King Mu attacked the Quanrong, returning with four white wolves and four white deer. From that time, the Wild Frontier ceased to present tribute. The Zhou then enacted the laws preserved in the "Punishments of Pu." Two hundred years after King Mu, King You of Zhou, due to his favor for his beloved concubine Bao Si, fell into conflict with the Marquis of Shen. The marquis, enraged, allied with the Quanrong to attack and kill King You below Mount Li, seizing Zhou's Jiaohuo region and settling between the Jing and Wei rivers, devastating the Central Kingdoms. Duke Xiang of Qin came to Zhou's aid, and the Zhou King Ping left Fenghao and moved eastward to Luoyang. At this time, Duke Xiang of Qin attacked the Rong as far as Mount Qi and was first enrolled among the vassal lords. Sixty-five years after this, the Shanrong crossed Yan and attacked Qi, and Duke Huan of Qi fought them in Qi's outskirts. Forty-four years later, the Shanrong attacked Yan. Yan appealed urgently to Qi, and Duke Huan marched north against the Shanrong, who fled.

Thereupon some Rong and Di tribes dwelt at Luhun, pressing eastward as far as Wei, raiding, robbing, and savagely oppressing the Central States. The Central States detested them, so a poet sang: 'Rong and Di we shall withstand,' storming against the Xianyun, driving to Taiyuan, chariots rolling forth in full array, building a fortress on that northern frontier. King Xiang of Zhou, after four years in exile, dispatched an urgent plea to Jin. At that time, Qin and Jin were both powerful states.

Twenty-some years after that, the Rong and Di arrived at Luoyang and attacked King Xiang of Zhou. The king fled to the outskirts of Zheng. Initially, King Xiang of Zhou had wished to attack Zheng, so he married a Rongdi woman as his queen and, with Rongdi troops, jointly attacked Zheng. Soon he deposed the Rongdi queen, who harbored resentment. The king's stepmother, Lady Hui, had a son named Zidai, whom she wished to install as king. Lady Hui and the Rongdi queen, along with Zidai, became internal collaborators, opening the gates to the Rongdi. Thus the Rongdi entered, defeated and drove out King Xiang, and installed Zidai as Son of Heaven. Some of the Rongdi then settled at Luhun, extending east to Wei, where they ravaged and oppressed the Central Kingdoms. The Chinese people cursed them in verse:

"The Rong and Di must be repelled,"

"The Rong and Di must be repelled,"

"The Rong and Di must be repelled,"

"The Rong and Di must be repelled,"

"Drive back the Xianyun to the great plains,"

"Chariots thundering forth, fortify the northern frontier."

"Chariots thundering forth, fortify the northern frontier."

After King Xiang of Zhou had lived outside his capital for four years, he sent envoys urgently appealing to Jin. Duke Wen of Jin, newly established, wished to establish hegemonic power, so he raised forces to drive out the Rongdi, slew Zidai, welcomed and reinstated King Xiang at Luoyang. At this time, Qin and Jin were powerful states.

After King Xiang of Zhou had lived outside his capital for four years, he sent envoys urgently appealing to Jin. Duke Wen of Jin, newly established, wished to establish hegemonic power, so he raised forces to drive out the Rongdi, slew Zidai, welcomed and reinstated King Xiang at Luoyang. At this time, Qin and Jin were powerful states.

After King Xiang of Zhou had lived outside his capital for four years, he sent envoys urgently appealing to Jin. Duke Wen of Jin, newly established, wished to establish hegemonic power, so he raised forces to drive out the Rongdi, slew Zidai, welcomed and reinstated King Xiang at Luoyang. At this time, Qin and Jin were powerful states.

At that time, the Han army was locked in confrontation with Xiang YuXiang YuHere's the translation of "The Warrior Who Almost Ruled the World" into English: **The Warrior Who Almost Ruled the World**The most feared warrior in Chinese history — brilliant in battle, catastrophic in politics — whose stubborn nobility cost him an empire.View profile →, and the Central Plains were exhausted by warfare. As a result, Modu was able to strengthen himself, commanding over 300,000 archers. From Chunwei to Touman spanned more than a thousand years, during which the Xiongnu were sometimes large, sometimes small, scattered and divided—so remote that their lineage can no longer be traced in order. By the time of Modu, however, the Xiongnu reached their greatest power: they subjugated all the northern tribes, and to the south they became a rival state to China. Only then could their hereditary succession and official titles be recorded.

After another hundred years, Duke Dao of Jin sent Wei Jiang to negotiate peace with the Rongdi, and the Rongdi submitted to Jin. Another century passed, and Zhao Xiangzi crossed the Gouzhhu pass, defeated and annexed the Dai state, pressing south to confront the Hu and Mo. Later, after jointly destroying the Zhi clan with the states of Han and Wei, dividing Jin's territories among themselves, Zhao controlled Dai and the region north of Gouzhhu, while Wei held the Hexi region and Shang Commandery, demarcating borders with the Rong. Later, the Yiqu Rong built fortified cities to defend themselves, but Qin gradually nibbled away at them until King Hui's reign, when Qin captured twenty-five Yiqu cities. King Hui attacked Wei, which surrendered all its western territories and Shang Commandery to Qin. During King Zhaoxiang's reign, the Yiqu Rong king had an affair with Queen Mother Xuan, by whom he had two sons. Queen Mother Xuan deceived and killed the Yiqu Rong king at Ganquan, then launched an attack that destroyed the Yiqu. Thus Qin acquired Longxi, Beidi, and Shang Commandery, building walls to repel the Hu.

After another hundred years, Duke Dao of Jin sent Wei Jiang to negotiate peace with the Rongdi, and the Rongdi submitted to Jin. Another century passed, and Zhao Xiangzi crossed the Gouzhhu pass, defeated and annexed the Dai state, pressing south to confront the Hu and Mo. Later, after jointly destroying the Zhi clan with the states of Han and Wei, dividing Jin's territories among themselves, Zhao controlled Dai and the region north of Gouzhhu, while Wei held the Hexi region and Shang Commandery, demarcating borders with the Rong. Later, the Yiqu Rong built fortified cities to defend themselves, but Qin gradually nibbled away at them until King Hui's reign, when Qin captured twenty-five Yiqu cities. King Hui attacked Wei, which surrendered all its western territories and Shang Commandery to Qin. During King Zhaoxiang's reign, the Yiqu Rong king had an affair with Queen Mother Xuan, by whom he had two sons. Queen Mother Xuan deceived and killed the Yiqu Rong king at Ganquan, then launched an attack that destroyed the Yiqu. Thus Qin acquired Longxi, Beidi, and Shang Commandery, building walls to repel the Hu.

King Wuling of Zhao also changed customs, adopting Hu dress and mounted archery, and defeated the Linhu and Loufan to the north. He constructed walls from Dai along the Yin Mountains to Gaoque, establishing the commanderies of Yunzhong, Yanmen, and Dai. Later, Yan had a capable general named Qin Kai, who was held as a hostage by the Hu, who trusted him greatly. Upon his return, he launched a surprise attack that routed the Donghu, driving them back over a thousand li. The grandson of this Qin Kai was Qin Wuyang, who together with Jing Ke attempted to assassinate the First Emperor of Qin. Yan also built walls from Zhaoyang to Xiangping, establishing the commanderies of Shanggu, Yuyang, Youbeiping, Liaoxi, and Liaodong to repel the Hu.

King Wuling of Zhao also changed customs, adopting Hu dress and mounted archery, and defeated the Linhu and Loufan to the north. He constructed walls from Dai along the Yin Mountains to Gaoque, establishing the commanderies of Yunzhong, Yanmen, and Dai. Later, Yan had a capable general named Qin Kai, who was held as a hostage by the Hu, who trusted him greatly. Upon his return, he launched a surprise attack that routed the Donghu, driving them back over a thousand li. The grandson of this Qin Kai was Qin Wuyang, who together with Jing Ke attempted to assassinate the First Emperor of Qin. Yan also built walls from Zhaoyang to Xiangping, establishing the commanderies of Shanggu, Yuyang, Youbeiping, Liaoxi, and Liaodong to repel the Hu.

At this time, among the seven major states bound by civilization and rites, three bordered the Xiongnu.

Later, under the Zhao general Li Mu, the Xiongnu did not dare approach Zhao's borders. When Qin unified the six states, the First Emperor dispatched Meng Tian with a hundred thousand troops to attack the Hu in the north, taking all the lands south of the Yellow River. Walls were built along forty-four county towns at the river's edge, and convict exiles were settled there. Straight roads were constructed from Jiuyuan to Yunyang, and along the mountainous frontier, wherever valleys could be fortified, defenses were built from Lintao to Liaodong, spanning over ten thousand li. Bridges were also thrown across the river to control the Beijia region.

Later, under the Zhao general Li Mu, the Xiongnu did not dare approach Zhao's borders. When Qin unified the six states, the First Emperor dispatched Meng Tian with a hundred thousand troops to attack the Hu in the north, taking all the lands south of the Yellow River. Walls were built along forty-four county towns at the river's edge, and convict exiles were settled there. Straight roads were constructed from Jiuyuan to Yunyang, and along the mountainous frontier, wherever valleys could be fortified, defenses were built from Lintao to Liaodong, spanning over ten thousand li. Bridges were also thrown across the river to control the Beijia region.

At this time, the Donghu were powerful and the Yuezhi flourishing. The Xiongnu Chanyu was Torman, who could not withstand Qin and fled north. Ten or so years later, when Meng Tian died and the vassal states rose against Qin, China fell into chaos, and all the convict exiles Qin had sent to the borders fled. The Xiongnu, finding relief from pressure, gradually crossed back south of the Yellow River, reestablishing their border at the former frontier. The Chanyu had a crown prince named Modun. Later, the Chanyu favored a beloved consort who bore a younger son, and he wished to depose Modun and install the younger son instead. He sent Modun as a hostage to the Yuezhi. Once Modun was held by the Yuezhi, Torman urgently attacked them. The Yuezhi intended to kill Modun, but he stole a fine horse and rode it back to his people. Torman considered him valorous and gave him command of ten thousand cavalry.

At this time, the Donghu were powerful and the Yuezhi flourishing. The Xiongnu Chanyu was Torman, who could not withstand Qin and fled north. Ten or so years later, when Meng Tian died and the vassal states rose against Qin, China fell into chaos, and all the convict exiles Qin had sent to the borders fled. The Xiongnu, finding relief from pressure, gradually crossed back south of the Yellow River, reestablishing their border at the former frontier. The Chanyu had a crown prince named Modun. Later, the Chanyu favored a beloved consort who bore a younger son, and he wished to depose Modun and install the younger son instead. He sent Modun as a hostage to the Yuezhi. Once Modun was held by the Yuezhi, Torman urgently attacked them. The Yuezhi intended to kill Modun, but he stole a fine horse and rode it back to his people. Torman considered him valorous and gave him command of ten thousand cavalry.

When hunting with his father Chanyu Torman, Modun shot Torman with the whistling arrow, and his retainers, following the arrow's flight, shot and killed the Chanyu. He executed his stepmother, younger brother, and all ministers who had refused to obey. Modun installed himself as Chanyu.

Having established himself, Modun saw that the Donghu were powerful and arrogant. Learning that Modun had killed his own father to take power, the Donghu sent envoys demanding the thousand-mile horse Torman had possessed. Modun consulted his ministers, who all said: "The thousand-mile horse is the Xiongnu's treasure—don't give it." Modun replied: "How could we be neighbors with another nation and grudge a single horse?" He gave them the horse.

Having established himself, Modun saw that the Donghu were powerful and arrogant. Learning that Modun had killed his own father to take power, the Donghu sent envoys demanding the thousand-mile horse Torman had possessed. Modun consulted his ministers, who all said: "The thousand-mile horse is the Xiongnu's treasure—don't give it." Modun replied: "How could we be neighbors with another nation and grudge a single horse?" He gave them the horse.

Having established himself, Modun saw that the Donghu were powerful and arrogant. Learning that Modun had killed his own father to take power, the Donghu sent envoys demanding the thousand-mile horse Torman had possessed. Modun consulted his ministers, who all said: "The thousand-mile horse is the Xiongnu's treasure—don't give it." Modun replied: "How could we be neighbors with another nation and grudge a single horse?" He gave them the horse.

Soon the Donghu, believing Modun feared them, sent envoys demanding the Chanyu's consort. Modun asked his ministers again; all were furious and said: "The Donghu are lawless, demanding a consort! Let us attack them!" Modun replied: "How could we be neighbors with another nation and grudge a single woman?" He sent his beloved consort to the Donghu.

Soon the Donghu, believing Modun feared them, sent envoys demanding the Chanyu's consort. Modun asked his ministers again; all were furious and said: "The Donghu are lawless, demanding a consort! Let us attack them!" Modun replied: "How could we be neighbors with another nation and grudge a single woman?" He sent his beloved consort to the Donghu.

Modun mounted his horse and commanded that any man falling behind would be beheaded, then launched eastward to attack the Donghu. Initially, the Donghu had despised Modun and made no preparations. When Modun arrived with his army, he crushed and annihilated the Donghu king, taking his people and livestock.

Having subdued the east, Modun attacked westward, driving out the Yuezhi. To the south, he annexed the Loufan and Baiyang kings south of the Yellow River. He recovered all the lands that Qin's Meng Tian had taken from the Xiongnu, and from the border passes of China to Chaoyuan and Fushi, he encroached upon Yan and Dai.

At this time, Han forces were locked in struggle with Xiang YuXiang YuHere's the translation of "The Warrior Who Almost Ruled the World" into English: **The Warrior Who Almost Ruled the World**The most feared warrior in Chinese history — brilliant in battle, catastrophic in politics — whose stubborn nobility cost him an empire.View profile →, and China was exhausted by war. Thus Modun grew powerful, commanding over thirty thousand armored archers.

From Chunwei to Torman, more than a thousand years had passed—sometimes large, sometimes small, dispersed and separated. Their history was indeed remote, and the lineage cannot be chronologically established. But from Modun onward, the Xiongnu became supreme, bringing all the northern barbarians into submission, becoming the southern enemy's equal as a nation. Their hereditary titles and official positions can be recorded.

From Chunwei to Torman, more than a thousand years had passed—sometimes large, sometimes small, dispersed and separated. Their history was indeed remote, and the lineage cannot be chronologically established. But from Modun onward, the Xiongnu became supreme, bringing all the northern barbarians into submission, becoming the southern enemy's equal as a nation. Their hereditary titles and official positions can be recorded.

They established the positions of Left and Right Wise Kings, Left and Right Guli Kings, Left and Right Great Generals, Left and Right Senior Commanders, Left and Right Great Husbands, and Left and Right Gutouhou. The Xiongnu called the wise "Tuqi," so the crown prince was normally installed as Left Tuqi King. From the Wise Kings down to the Husbands, the greater commanded ten thousand cavalry, the lesser several thousand—twenty-four such leaders, collectively called the "Ten Thousand Riders." All high officials held hereditary positions. The Huyan clan, the Lan clan, and later the Xubu clan—these three families constituted the aristocracy.

The left princes and generals held the eastern territories, extending from Shanggu eastward, bordering the Huimo and Chaoxian. The right princes and generals held the western territories, extending from Shang Commandery westward, bordering the Yuezhi, Di, and Qiang peoples. The Chanyu's court directly administered Dai and Yunzhong—each had its own territory, following water and grass in migration. The Left and Right Wise Kings and Left and Right Guli Kings held the highest positions, with the Gutouhou assisting in governance. The twenty-four leaders each appointed their own Thousand-Captains, Hundred-Captains, Squad-Captains, Lesser Kings, Ministers, Fengduwei, Danghu, and Qiequ.

The left princes and generals held the eastern territories, extending from Shanggu eastward, bordering the Huimo and Chaoxian. The right princes and generals held the western territories, extending from Shang Commandery westward, bordering the Yuezhi, Di, and Qiang peoples. The Chanyu's court directly administered Dai and Yunzhong—each had its own territory, following water and grass in migration. The Left and Right Wise Kings and Left and Right Guli Kings held the highest positions, with the Gutouhou assisting in governance. The twenty-four leaders each appointed their own Thousand-Captains, Hundred-Captains, Squad-Captains, Lesser Kings, Ministers, Fengduwei, Danghu, and Qiequ.

In the first month of the year, all leaders gathered at the Chanyu's court for a small council and religious rites. In the fifth month, they held a grand assembly at Longcheng to sacrifice to ancestors, heaven and earth, and the spirits. In autumn, when the horses were fat, they held the grand assembly at Dailin to assess people and livestock. Their laws prescribed: anyone drawing a blade a foot long was put to death; thieves were enslaved along with their families. Minor crimes were punished by branding; major ones by death. Incarceration lasted no more than ten days; the nation's prisoners numbered only a few individuals.

In the first month of the year, all leaders gathered at the Chanyu's court for a small council and religious rites. In the fifth month, they held a grand assembly at Longcheng to sacrifice to ancestors, heaven and earth, and the spirits. In autumn, when the horses were fat, they held the grand assembly at Dailin to assess people and livestock. Their laws prescribed: anyone drawing a blade a foot long was put to death; thieves were enslaved along with their families. Minor crimes were punished by branding; major ones by death. Incarceration lasted no more than ten days; the nation's prisoners numbered only a few individuals.

In the first month of the year, all leaders gathered at the Chanyu's court for a small council and religious rites. In the fifth month, they held a grand assembly at Longcheng to sacrifice to ancestors, heaven and earth, and the spirits. In autumn, when the horses were fat, they held the grand assembly at Dailin to assess people and livestock. Their laws prescribed: anyone drawing a blade a foot long was put to death; thieves were enslaved along with their families. Minor crimes were punished by branding; major ones by death. Incarceration lasted no more than ten days; the nation's prisoners numbered only a few individuals.

The Chanyu each morning left camp to worship the rising sun, and each evening worshipped the moon. When seated, the places of honor were on the left, facing north. The day was designated by the cyclical heavenly stems, with the fifth and sixth days considered auspicious. For burial, there were coffins and gilded clothing and furs, but no mounds, trees, or mourning garments. Thousands of favored ministers and concubines accompanied the dead. When undertaking campaigns, they watched the stars and moon: when the moon was full, they attacked; when it waned, they retreated. In battle, those who captured enemy heads were rewarded with a cup of wine; spoils taken in raids were distributed to the captors; prisoners became slaves. Thus every soldier in battle was zealous for gain, skilled at feints to draw out the enemy. When they saw an enemy, they pursued advantage like birds gathering; when defeated, they scattered like clouds. Those who helped the dying or retrieved the dead claimed the victim's possessions.

After this, Modun subjugated the Hunyu, Qushe, Dingling, Gekun, and Xinli peoples. Then all the Xiongnu nobles and ministers submitted, acknowledging Modun Chanyu's superior wisdom.

At this time, Han had only recently unified China. The King of Han, Xin, was moved to Dai and established his capital at Mayi. The Xiongnu attacked Mayi in force, and the King of Han XinHan XinHere's the translation of "The General Who Won Three Empires" into English: **The General Who Conquered Three Empires** Alternatively, if you want a more literal translation: **The General Who Won Three Empires** Both are correct, but "conquered" might sound more natural in English depending on the context.From begging for meals at strangers' tables and enduring humiliation in the marketplace, to commanding a million troops—the greatest military genius of the early Han Dynasty, ultimately undone by his own emperor.View profile → surrendered to the Xiongnu. With Xin as their guide, the Xiongnu crossed Gouzhhu to the south and attacked Taiyuan, reaching as far as Jinyang. Emperor Gaozu personally led troops to attack them. It was winter, bitterly cold with freezing rain and snow; so many of the soldiers suffered frostbite that twelve or thirteen in every ten were disabled. Modun feigned defeat, drawing Han forces onward.

Three generals were further appointed, with troops stationed at Xiliu west of Chang'an, at Jimen north of the Wei River, and at Bashang, to guard against the Hu. Hu horsemen breached the border at Gouzhu Mountain in Dai, and beacon fires spread the alarm to the Sweet Spring Palace and Chang'an. The Xiongnu, from the Chanyu down, all showed amity to the Han, moving freely beneath the Long Wall. The Han sent a man of Mayi, Nie Wengyi, to smuggle goods to the Xiongnu in a deceitful plot, feigning an offer to sell the city of Mayi to lure the Chanyu. The Chanyu believed him, and greedy for the wealth of Mayi, he rode into Wuzhou Fortress with a hundred thousand horsemen.

Emperor Gaozu sent envoys by devious means to present rich gifts to the yanzhi. She persuaded Modu: "Two rulers should not trap each other in distress. Even if one gains Han territory, a chanyu cannot truly reside there. Moreover, the Han king also has divine protection—let the chanyu consider this."

Modu had been awaiting the arrival of Wang Huang and Zhao Li, generals of the Han commander Han Wang Xin, but their forces did not appear. Suspecting they might be conspiring with Han, he accepted the yanzhi's counsel and opened one corner of the siege. Emperor Gaozu then ordered his men to fully draw their bows and face outward. They broke through the opened gap and eventually rejoined the main army. Modu then withdrew his forces.

Modu had been awaiting the arrival of Wang Huang and Zhao Li, generals of the Han commander Han Wang Xin, but their forces did not appear. Suspecting they might be conspiring with Han, he accepted the yanzhi's counsel and opened one corner of the siege. Emperor Gaozu then ordered his men to fully draw their bows and face outward. They broke through the opened gap and eventually rejoined the main army. Modu then withdrew his forces.

Han also pulled back its armies, sending Liu Jing to negotiate a marriage alliance. Thereafter, Han Wang Xin became a Xiongnu general, and along with Zhao Li, Wang Huang, and others, repeatedly violated agreements, raiding Dai and Yunzhong. Before long, Chen Xi rebelled and plotted with Han XinHan XinHere's the translation of "The General Who Won Three Empires" into English: **The General Who Conquered Three Empires** Alternatively, if you want a more literal translation: **The General Who Won Three Empires** Both are correct, but "conquered" might sound more natural in English depending on the context.From begging for meals at strangers' tables and enduring humiliation in the marketplace, to commanding a million troops—the greatest military genius of the early Han Dynasty, ultimately undone by his own emperor.View profile → to attack Dai. Han dispatched Fan Kuai to strike them, recapturing Dai, Yanmen, and Yunzhong commanderies—but without crossing the frontier. At this time, many Han generals were surrendering to the Xiongnu, so Modu frequently raided Dai territory.

When Prince of Yan Lu Wan rebelled and defected to the Xiongnu with several thousand followers, they plagued the region east of Shanggu. Emperor Gaozu died, and during the reigns of Emperor Hui and Empress Dowager Lü, when Han was still consolidating power, the Xiongnu grew arrogant.

Modu sent a letter to the empress dowager with insulting language. She wished to attack him, but her generals warned: "Though Emperor Gaozu was wise and martial, he was still trapped at Pingcheng." So she refrained and renewed the marriage alliance with the Xiongnu.

When Emperor Wen first ascended the throne, he renewed the marriage alliance. In the third year of his reign, the Xiongnu Right Prince moved into the Yellow River region, raided the barbarian settlements along the frontier walls of Shangjun, killing and plundering the people. Emperor Wen ordered Chancellor Guan Ying to dispatch eighty-five hundred chariots and cavalry to Gaonu to attack the Right Prince. The Right Prince fled beyond the frontier. The emperor toured Taiyuan. At that time the Prince of Jibei was in rebellion, so the emperor returned and halted the chancellor's campaign against the Xiongnu.

When Emperor Wen first ascended the throne, he renewed the marriage alliance. In the third year of his reign, the Xiongnu Right Prince moved into the Yellow River region, raided the barbarian settlements along the frontier walls of Shangjun, killing and plundering the people. Emperor Wen ordered Chancellor Guan Ying to dispatch eighty-five hundred chariots and cavalry to Gaonu to attack the Right Prince. The Right Prince fled beyond the frontier. The emperor toured Taiyuan. At that time the Prince of Jibei was in rebellion, so the emperor returned and halted the chancellor's campaign against the Xiongnu.

The following year, the chanyu sent a letter to Han:

"The Great Chanyu of the Xiongnu, established by Heaven, respectfully inquires after the Emperor's well-being. Previously the Emperor discussed the marriage alliance, and the letter's intent was in harmony. Han border officials have insulted the Right Prince. The Right Prince, without seeking permission, listened to the counsel of Hougan Nanshi and others, and clashed with Han officials, breaking the agreement between our two rulers and severing the bond of brotherhood. The Emperor sent reproaches twice. Han sent envoys with letters expecting replies, but none came. Han envoys did not arrive, and Han therefore became uncooperative; neighboring states stopped submitting. Now because minor officials violated the agreement, the Right Prince was punished and sent west to attack the Yuezhi. By Heaven's fortune, with capable officers and soldiers and strong horses, he destroyed the Yuezhi, slaying and capturing them. He pacified Loulan, Wusun, the Jie, and twenty-six neighboring kingdoms, all brought under Xiongnu control. All bow-wielding peoples are now united as one family. The northern territories are settled. I wish to sheathe weapons, rest soldiers, and tend horses; to abandon past grievances and restore the original agreement; to bring peace to border peoples and fulfill the ancient covenant, so that the young may grow to adulthood and the old may rest in security, enjoying peace and happiness for generations. Not having achieved the Emperor's approval, I send my Chamberlain Xi Qian to present this letter, offering a dromedary camel, two riding horses, and a matched team of four.

"If the Emperor does not wish the Xiongnu to approach the frontier, let him so order his officials and people to dwell far away. When envoys arrive, send them back immediately."

"The Emperor respectfully inquires after the Great Chanyu's well-being. Chamberlain Xi Qian delivered your letter. It states that the Right Prince, without seeking permission, listened to the counsel of Hougan Nanshi and others, breaking the agreement between our two rulers and severing the bond of brotherhood, so Han became uncooperative and neighboring states stopped submitting. Now because minor officials violated the agreement, the Right Prince was punished and sent west to attack the Yuezhi, which have been pacified. I wish to sheathe weapons, rest soldiers, and tend horses; to abandon past grievances and restore the original agreement; to bring peace to border peoples, so that the young may grow to adulthood and the old may rest in security, enjoying peace and happiness for generations. I highly commend this—it is the will of ancient sage rulers.

"The Emperor respectfully inquires after the Great Chanyu's well-being. Chamberlain Xi Qian delivered your letter. It states that the Right Prince, without seeking permission, listened to the counsel of Hougan Nanshi and others, breaking the agreement between our two rulers and severing the bond of brotherhood, so Han became uncooperative and neighboring states stopped submitting. Now because minor officials violated the agreement, the Right Prince was punished and sent west to attack the Yuezhi, which have been pacified. I wish to sheathe weapons, rest soldiers, and tend horses; to abandon past grievances and restore the original agreement; to bring peace to border peoples, so that the young may grow to adulthood and the old may rest in security, enjoying peace and happiness for generations. I highly commend this—it is the will of ancient sage rulers.

The envoy reported that the chanyu had personally led campaigns against other states, enduring great hardship.

At that time the Son of Heaven was touring the frontiers, arriving at Shuofang, where he marshaled 180,000 cavalry to display his military might, and sent Guo Ji to convey a warning to the chanyu. After Guo Ji arrived among the Xiongnu, the chanyu's master of guests asked the purpose of his mission. Guo Ji, with a humble manner and friendly words, said, 'I wish to see the chanyu and speak with him in person.' When the chanyu received Guo Ji, Guo Ji said: 'The King of Nanyue's head already hangs from the north gate of the Han palace. Now if the chanyu is ready to advance and fight the Han, the Son of Heaven himself will lead his troops and await you at the border; if the chanyu is unable to do so, then he should face south and submit as a vassal to the Han. Why needlessly flee far away, hiding in the cold and bitter land north of the desert, where there is no water or grass? There is no point in doing so.'

Soon after, Modu died. His son Ji Yu succeeded him, known as the Lao-shang Chanyu. Upon his accession, Emperor Wen again sent a princess from the imperial clan as the chanyu's yanzhi, and assigned the court eunuch Zhonghang Yue to accompany her. Zhonghang Yue did not wish to go; Han compelled him. He declared: "If I must go, I will become a bane to Han." Upon arriving, he submitted to the chanyu, who took him into great favor.

Initially, the Xiongnu prized Han silk and provisions. Zhonghang Yue said: "The Xiongnu population cannot match a single Han commandery, yet they are strong because their clothing and food differ—they need not rely on Han. If the chanyu changes custom and craves Han goods, Han goods need comprise only one-tenth, and the Xiongnu will be entirely devoted to Han. When they obtain Han silk, they race through grass and thorns until the clothes and trousers are tattered, demonstrating that Han cloth is inferior to felt and fur. When they obtain Han food, they discard it, showing that it cannot compare to milk and cheese for taste."

Initially, the Xiongnu prized Han silk and provisions. Zhonghang Yue said: "The Xiongnu population cannot match a single Han commandery, yet they are strong because their clothing and food differ—they need not rely on Han. If the chanyu changes custom and craves Han goods, Han goods need comprise only one-tenth, and the Xiongnu will be entirely devoted to Han. When they obtain Han silk, they race through grass and thorns until the clothes and trousers are tattered, demonstrating that Han cloth is inferior to felt and fur. When they obtain Han food, they discard it, showing that it cannot compare to milk and cheese for taste."

He then instructed the chanyu's entourage in record-keeping to census the population and livestock. Han sent letters to the chanyu on one-chih-one-inch wooden tablets: "The Emperor respectfully inquires after the Great Chanyu's well-being," listing gifts and messages. Zhonghang Yue ordered the chanyu's replies to Han on one-chih-two-inch tablets, with seals and inscriptions enlarged and prominent, and the wording arrogant: "Heaven and Earth gave birth to them, the Sun and Moon placed them— the Great Chanyu of the Xiongnu respectfully inquires after the Han Emperor's well-being," with matching lists of gifts and messages.

He then instructed the chanyu's entourage in record-keeping to census the population and livestock. Han sent letters to the chanyu on one-chih-one-inch wooden tablets: "The Emperor respectfully inquires after the Great Chanyu's well-being," listing gifts and messages. Zhonghang Yue ordered the chanyu's replies to Han on one-chih-two-inch tablets, with seals and inscriptions enlarged and prominent, and the wording arrogant: "Heaven and Earth gave birth to them, the Sun and Moon placed them— the Great Chanyu of the Xiongnu respectfully inquires after the Han Emperor's well-being," with matching lists of gifts and messages.

Han envoys sometimes remarked: "The Xiongnu customs belittle the elderly." Zhonghang Yue silenced the Han envoys: "Do Han soldiers and garrison conscripts leave elderly parents behind? Do they not take the warm, rich, fine foods for their parents' journey?" The envoys replied yes. Zhonghang Yue said: "The Xiongnu clearly wage war as their purpose. The old and weak cannot fight, so the strong and healthy, well-fed and robust, defend on their behalf. Thus father and son each protect the other—what basis is there to say the Xiongnu despise the elderly?"

The envoys said: "Xiongnu fathers and sons share the same felt tent. When a father dies, a son marries his stepmother; when a brother dies, all surviving brothers take his widow. There is no finery of caps and sashes, no courtly decorum." Zhonghang Yue replied: "Xiongnu customs: people eat livestock meat, drink its milk, wear its hide; livestock graze on grass and drink water, moving with the seasons. Thus in emergencies, people practice archery and horsemanship; in peacetime, they enjoy uncomplicated pursuits. Their laws are few and easily followed. Rulers and ministers are uncomplicated—one state's governance is like one body. When fathers, sons, or brothers die, widows are taken as wives—this prevents the loss of lineage. Thus though the Xiongnu may have chaos, they always preserve the bloodline. In China, although formally one does not marry a father's or brother's widow, as kinship weakens, people kill each other, even changing surnames—all follow this pattern.

"Furthermore, due to corrupted propriety and ritual, rulers and subjects resent each other. As for houses and shelters, exhaustion of vital energy is inevitable. They labor in fields and mulberry groves for clothing and food, build city walls for self-protection. Thus in emergencies their people are unaccustomed to warfare; in peacetime they collapse from endless labor.

"Alas, you people of earthen houses! Speak not so much! Why does your cap sit so firmly?"

From then on, whenever Han envoys wished to argue, Zhonghang Yue would say: "Han envoys, speak not at such length. As for what Han sends the Xiongnu—silk, cloth, grain, and malt—let the quantities be adequate and the quality fine. What else is there to say? If the goods provided are good, so be it. If inadequate or poor, we shall wait until harvest, then ride forth and ravage your crops." He taught the chanyu daily to assess advantageous and harmful situations.

The Xiongnu grew daily more arrogant, raiding the border each year, killing and plundering many people and livestock, especially in Yunzhong and Liaodong, with over ten thousand taken from Daicommandery alone. Distressed, Han sent envoys to the Xiongnu. The chanyu also sent a Danghu to reply and apologize, again discussing the marriage alliance.

"The Emperor respectfully inquires after the Great Chanyu's well-being. Danghu Qieju Diaoquin and Langzhong Han Liao delivered two horses, which have arrived—I gratefully accept them.

"The Former Emperor established: North of the Great Wall, the land of bow-wielding peoples, is under the chanyu's dominion; south of the Great Wall, the realm of capped and belted peoples, is also under imperial governance. Let the ten thousand people cultivate, weave, hunt, and provision themselves, fathers without separation from sons, rulers and ministers at peace together, with no violence or rebellion.

"Now I hear that wicked men, greedy for conquest, have betrayed righteousness and broken agreements, forgetting the lives of the people and severing the bonds of friendship between two rulers—though these matters occurred in the past.

"The classic says: 'Once two states have made peace, both rulers happily agree, weapons are sheathed, soldiers rest, horses tend their foals—the realm flourishes anew.' I greatly commend this. Sages daily renew and reform. Let the old rest, let the young grow, each preserving their heads until their natural end.

"The classic says: 'Once two states have made peace, both rulers happily agree, weapons are sheathed, soldiers rest, horses tend their foals—the realm flourishes anew.' I greatly commend this. Sages daily renew and reform. Let the old rest, let the young grow, each preserving their heads until their natural end.

These are words of caution. People who discuss the Xiongnu nowadays fret about seeking mere temporary advantage, and eagerly adopt such arguments to suit their one-sided views, without weighing the actual circumstances of both sides. Generals rely on the vast expanse of China and are filled with bravado, so the sovereign makes decisions accordingly, and for this reason achievements are not profound. Even Yao, though worthy, could not bring his undertakings to fruition; it was only after obtaining Yu that the nine provinces were at peace. If one wishes to revive the sacred tradition, the key lies solely in selecting and appointing the right commanders and ministers! Solely in selecting and appointing the right commanders and ministers!