货殖列传 — Shiji

Laozi said: In the highest state of good governance, neighboring states could see each other, and the sounds of chickens and dogs could be heard from one to the next. The people would each find their food sweet, their clothing beautiful, their customs agreeable, and their occupations joyful, living out their lives without ever needing to interact with neighbors. If one tried to apply this ideal to the affairs of recent times to stop the ears and eyes of the common people, it would hardly be feasible.

The Grand Historian said: Before the time of the Divine Farmer, I have no knowledge of. But as for what the Odes and Documents describe since the time of Yu and Xia, people sought to exhaust the pleasures of sound and color with their ears and eyes, craved the richest flavors of meat and grain with their mouths, pursued bodily ease and comfort, and harbored pride in the glory and prestige of their station. Such customs had gradually taken hold among the people over time. Even if one were to expound these refined principles door to door to every household, ultimately one could not transform them. Thus the best course is to let things take their natural course; the next best is to guide them through inducements; the next is to teach them; the next is to regulate them; and the worst is to compete with them.

The region west of the mountains abounds in timber, bamboo, paper mulberry, hemp, and jade; east of the mountains there are many fish, salt, lacquer, silk, and musical instruments; south of the Yangtze produces camphor wood, catalpa, ginger, cassia, gold, tin, lead, cinnabar, rhino horn, hawksbill turtle shell, pearls, and animal hides; north of the Longmen and Jieshi passes there are many horses, cattle, sheep, furs, and sinews; copper and iron are found throughout the mountains for a thousand miles in every direction. These are the main natural resources, the goods that the people of the Central Kingdom delight in, the provisions, clothing, and implements required for living and for burial. Thus food comes from the farmer, goods are extracted by the forester, products are manufactured by the craftsman, and goods are distributed by the merchant. Is there any need for government decrees or official summons to set these matters in motion? Each person applies his own abilities and exhausts his strength to obtain what he desires. When goods are cheap, there is a movement toward higher prices; when prices are high, there is a movement toward lower prices. Each person devotes himself to his occupation, finds joy in his work, as naturally as water flowing downward, day and night without rest, coming without summons, emerging without being asked. Is this not conformity to the Way and verification of what is natural?

The Book of Zhou says: If the farmer does not plow, there will be a shortage of food; if the craftsman does not work, there will be a shortage of goods; if the merchant does not trade, the three essential treasures will be cut off; if the forester does not open the resources, wealth will dwindle. When wealth dwindles and the mountains and marshes are not developed, these four occupations—on which the people's food and clothing depend—will fail. When the foundation is large, there is abundance; when it is small, there is want. At the highest level, this enriches the state; at the lowest, it enriches the family. The way of wealth and poverty has no one to grant or withhold it; the skillful have surplus, while the incompetent fall short.

Thus Duke Taigong, when enfeoffed at Yingqiu, found there salt marshes and few people. Thereupon Duke Taigong encouraged the women to work at weaving and the crafts, perfected their skills, and facilitated trade in fish and salt. As a result, people and goods flocked to him, coming as thick as threads on a string and gathering like spokes around a hub. Thus Qi supplied caps, belts, clothing, and shoes to the empire, and from the seas to the mountains between, merchants raised their sleeves and came to pay homage.

Later Qi fell into decline, but Guan Zhong reformed its institutions and established the nine storehouses for price regulation. Duke Huan thereupon became a hegemon; he convened the lords nine times and unified all under heaven. Guan Zhong himself also acquired three estates, holding the position of minister to the nobles, richer than the rulers of the various states. Thus Qi's wealth and power endured until the reigns of Kings Wei and Xuan.

As it is said: When the granaries are full, the people know propriety; when food and clothing are sufficient, they know honor. Propriety arises from abundance and perishes in want. The superior man, when rich, delights in practicing virtue; the common man, when rich, uses his wealth to suit his own purposes. When the depths are deep, fish are found there; when the mountains are deep, beasts resort there; when a person is rich, benevolence and righteousness attach to him. The rich gain influence and prestige; when they lose their position, visitors have nowhere to go, and they themselves are unhappy. This is especially true among the barbarian peoples.

The proverb says: A son of a family worth a thousand gold pieces does not die in the marketplace. This is no empty saying. Thus it is said: The world is a bustle of activity, all for profit; the world is a crowd of confusion, all pressing forward for gain. Even a king of a thousand chariots, a lord of ten thousand households, or the ruler of a hundred families, still worries about poverty—how much more so the common man living in a humble cottage!

Long ago, King Goujian of Yue was besieged at Kuaiji. Thereupon he employed Fan Li and Ji Ran. Ji Ran said: Know that there will be conflict, so prepare accordingly; know the season and the uses of things, and you will understand commodities. When you understand both, you can discern the true nature of all goods.

The principle of accumulation is this: see that goods are sound, and do not let money lie idle. In trading perishable goods, do not keep them; do not hoard goods in expectation of higher prices. By considering what is surplus and what is scarce, you will know what will become expensive and what cheap. When goods rise to their highest price, they will inevitably fall; when they fall to their lowest, they will inevitably rise. When prices are high, sell as if discarding dirt; when prices are low, buy as if taking up pearls. Money and goods should be kept moving like flowing water.

After ten years of applying these principles, the state was wealthy. The king generously rewarded the soldiers, and they rushed into arrow and stone as eagerly as the thirsty seek water. Thus they revenged themselves on the powerful state of Wu, displayed their might throughout the Central Kingdom, and were honored as one of the Five Hegemons.

After Fan Li had atoned for the shame of Kuaiji, he sighed and said: The seven strategies of Ji Ran—Yue used five of them and achieved its ambition. Having already applied them to the state, I wish to apply them to my family. Thereupon he floated a light boat on the rivers and lakes, changed his name, and assuming the identity of Chi Yi Zi Pi, went to Qi. Then at Tao he became Zhu Gong. Zhu Gong judged that Tao lay in the center of the empire, where the four directions met, and was a place where goods were bought and sold. He therefore accumulated wealth and stored goods, racing against time but never pressing anyone for payment. Thus one who is skilled in managing livelihood knows how to choose the right people and seize the right moment.

In nineteen years he thrice amassed a thousand gold pieces, and twice distributed his wealth to poor friends and distant brothers. This is what is meant by the rich who delight in practicing virtue. In later years, growing old, he left affairs to his sons and grandsons, who managed and multiplied the fortune until it reached tens of millions. Thus when people speak of wealth, they cite Tao Zhu Gong.

Bai Gui was a native of Zhou. In the time of King Wen of Wei, Li Ke devoted himself to developing the land's potential, while Bai Gui watched the turns of the market with delight. Thus he would buy what others discarded and sell what others sought.

To increase currency, buy the lower grade of grain; to increase the yield in stones and bushels, buy the better seeds. He was able to restrain his appetite for food and drink, control his desires, and economize on clothing, sharing hardship and happiness with his servant boys. He seized opportunities like a fierce beast or a soaring bird of prey.

Thus the world regards Bai Gui as the founder of the art of managing livelihood. Bai Gui indeed tested his methods and achieved something distinctive—nothing done carelessly.

Yi Dun rose to wealth through salt. Guo Zong of Handan built an enterprise through iron smelting and matched the wealth of kings. Wu Shi Liao raised livestock. When his herd grew large, he sold off the excess and sought rare silks, which he secretly presented to the Rong king. The Rong king gave him ten times the value in livestock—oxen and horses measured by the grain they consumed. The First Emperor of Qin ordered that Liao be treated like an enfeoffed lord, with regular access to court audiences. The widow Qing of Ba had ancestors who discovered cinnabar mines and controlled the profits for several generations; her family's wealth was immeasurable. She was a widow, yet able to preserve her enterprise, using her wealth to defend herself, never suffering invasion. The First Emperor of Qin honored her as a virtuous woman and made her a guest, building a tower called Nü Huai Qing Tai in her memory.

Now Liao was a mere herdsman and Qing a poor widow from the countryside. Yet they stood on equal footing with rulers and made their names known throughout the realm—was it not because of their wealth?

When the Han dynasty arose and the empire was unified, the passes were opened and the mountain and marsh prohibitions relaxed. Consequently, wealthy merchants spread throughout the realm, and all trade flourished; nothing failed to find its proper channel, and everyone obtained what he desired. Meritorious lords and powerful clans were relocated to the capital.

In antiquity, the Tang people dwelt at Hedong, the Yin people at Henan, and the Zhou people at Henan. The Three Rivers region stood at the center of the empire, like the legs of a tripod; the rulers of each dynasty dwelt there in turn, establishing states that lasted for hundreds or thousands of years. Though the land was relatively small and the people numerous, the area was the meeting place of the lords and princes. Thus its customs were refined and economical, and its people skilled in affairs.

The families of Yang and Pingyang traded south to Qin and Di, north to Zhong and Dai. Zhong and Dai lay north of the stone lands, bordering the northern barbarians, who frequently raided them. The people were proud, contentious, and fond of displays of courage; they were chivalrous and committed wrongs, neglecting farming and commerce. Yet being close to the northern peoples, armies often passed through, and goods from the central states were frequently in demand. The people were restless and unstable; even from the time of the Zhao state they were troubled by their fierceness, and King Wuling only made it worse. Their customs still bore the character of Zhao. Thus the Yang and Pingyang families traded within this region and obtained what they desired.

In Anyi, a thousand jujube trees; in Yan and Qin, a thousand chestnut trees; in Shu, Hanzhong, and Jiangling, a thousand orange trees; north of the Huai River, south of Changshan, between the Yellow River and the Ji River, a thousand qiu trees; in Chen and Xia, a thousand mu of lacquer trees; in Qi and Lu, a thousand mu of mulberry and hemp; along the Wei River, a thousand mu of bamboo; and in a famous city of ten thousand households, a thousand mu of suburban fields yielding one zhong per mu, or a thousand mu of gardenia and madder, or a thousand beds of ginger and chives: those who own such things are all equal in wealth to a marquis of a thousand households. Yet these are merely the assets that provide wealth; they need not look into the marketplace, nor travel to other towns, but sit at home and await the receipt of their income, possessing the status of a retired scholar while drawing their sustenance.

If one's family is poor, his parents old, his wife and children weak, and at seasonal sacrifices he lacks the means to make offerings or contribute to communal feasts, with food and clothing insufficient to sustain himself, and yet he feels no shame—then there is nothing more shameful than this. Therefore, when without wealth, one relies on physical strength; when possessing a little, one competes with cleverness; when already rich, one seizes favorable opportunities. This is the general rule. In managing one's livelihood, if one can obtain supplies without endangering himself, then worthy men will strive to do so. Hence, wealth from primary production (agriculture) is the highest, from secondary occupations (trade) comes next, and from dishonest means is the lowest. To lack the conduct of an extraordinary recluse yet remain long in poverty and low status while fond of discoursing on benevolence and righteousness—this too is shameful.

Wen and Zhi traded west to Shangdang and north to Zhao, Zhongshan. Zhongshan had thin soil and a numerous population. Moreover, the land retained the licentious customs of the debased Shang at Shaqiu. Its people's customs were hasty and impatient, turning to whatever brought advantage. Men gathered to carouse and gamble, their voices raised in mournful songs; when idle they dug graves and practiced trickery and counterfeiting, producing many fine goods and performers. Women played the zither and struck the se, seeking charm and wealth, entering harems and serving the various lords.

Handan was also a great metropolis in the region between the Zhang and Wei rivers. North it connected with Yan and Zhuo; south it had Zheng and Wei. Zheng and Wei had customs similar to Zhao, but being closer to Liang and Lu, they placed greater weight on ceremony and propriety.

The city of Puyang was moved to Yewang, which inherited the Qi customs of being fond of displays of courage and loyal to duty.

Luoyang traded east to Qi and Lu, south to Liang and Chu. Thus south of Mount Tai lay Lu, north of it lay Qi. Qi extended along the mountains and seas, with fertile soil extending a thousand li, well suited to mulberry and hemp. Its people were largely dressed in embroidered silks and linen, and engaged in fishing and salt. Linzi was also a great metropolis between the seas and Mount Tai. Its customs were broad and generous, its people clever and fond of discussion. They valued their land and were difficult to move, yet they were timid in fighting and courageous in attacking others, so there were many who waylaid travelers—the manner of a great state. It contained within it five kinds of people. Zoucheng and Lu, on the banks of the Zhu and Si, still preserved the customs of the Duke of Zhou. They loved Confucianism and were well versed in ceremony, so their people were cautious and meticulous. They engaged in mulberry and hemp but lacked the wealth of forests and marshes. The land was small and the people numerous; they were frugal and fearful of wrongdoing, shunning vice. When the region declined, they became fond of commerce and eager for profit, worse than the people of Zhou.

Yingchuan and Nanyang were settlements of the Xia people. They valued loyalty and simplicity, preserving the customs of former kings. Yingchuan was earnest and honest. During the chaotic final years of Qin, troublemakers were relocated to Nanyang. West of Nanyang lay the Wuguan and Yunguan passes; to the southeast flowed the Han, Yangtze, and Huai rivers. Wan was also a major city. Its people mixed business with pleasure, many becoming merchants. Its men of honor and chivalry had connections with Yingchuan—hence why they are still called Xia people to this day.

The empire's products varied by region. Shandong ate sea salt; Shanxi ate salt from brine. South of the passes and north of the deserts, salt was commonly found—generally speaking. In sum, the lands of Chu and Yue were vast but sparsely populated. They ate rice and fish, sometimes cultivating with fire and flooding, gathering fruits and shellfish without needing to buy them. The land was fertile and food plentiful, with no fears of famine—so people were idle and slothful, accumulating nothing and remaining poor. Thus south of the Yangtze, there were no people who froze or starved, but also no families worth a thousand gold pieces.

North of the Yi and Si rivers, the land was suitable for the Five Grains, mulberry trees, and the Six Domestic Animals. Population was dense while land was scarce, and floods and droughts frequently struck—so people were fond of storing wealth. Thus Qin, Xia, Liang, and Lu were agricultural regions that valued their people. The Three Rivers region, Wan, and Chen shared this tendency, plus commerce. Qi and Zhao were homes of cunning and resourcefulness, seeking profit through enterprise. Yan and Dai focused on farming and animal husbandry combined with sericulture.

Idle young nobles, polishing their swords and chariots to display their wealth—they do so for appearances. Those who hunt and fish at dawn and dusk, braving frost and snow, racing through dangerous valleys, facing wild beasts for a delicacy—they do so for taste. Gamblers and racers, fighting roosters and coursing hounds, glaring and boasting of their victories—they do so for fear of losing. Doctors and craftsmen who exhaust their spirits and abilities—they do so for generous fees. Clerks and officials who falsify documents, forge seals, counterfeit books, risking execution—they do so for bribes. Farmers, artisans, and merchants all seek to enrich themselves. They will exhaust every effort and ability, never holding back. As the saying goes: "No one peddles firewood a hundred miles away; no one trades grain a thousand miles." Settle in a place for a year, plant grain; for ten years, plant trees; for a hundred years, cultivate virtue through exemplary conduct. Virtue here means bringing benefit to both people and society.

If someone without official salary or land holdings enjoys comfort comparable to nobles, this is called "ordinary affluence." A feudal lord who draws rent from his domain collects roughly two hundred cash per household annually. A ruler of a thousand households thus receives twenty thousand per year, covering tribute, audiences, and diplomatic gifts. Common farmers, artisans, and merchants also earn annual returns of two thousand per ten thousand invested, so a family with a million in capital gains two hundred thousand, out of which they pay labor taxes and land rents. They can satisfy their desires and dress as they please.

Thus: on grassland, two hundred horses; a thousand hooves each of cattle and sheep; in marshland, a thousand fat pigs; near water, a thousand dan of fish from ponds; in hills, a thousand prime timber trees. In Anyi, a thousand jujube trees; in Qin and Yan, a thousand chestnut trees; in Shu, Han, and Jiangling, a thousand orange trees; between the Huai River and south of Changshan, bounded by the Yellow and Ji rivers, a thousand paulownia trees; in Chen and Xia, a thousand mu of lacquer trees; in Qi and Lu, a thousand mu of mulberry and hemp; along the Wei River, a thousand mu of bamboo; in famous cities with ten thousand households, a thousand mu of prime grain land per city district, or plantations of medicinal herbs and peppers—these holdings all matched the wealth of a marquis with a thousand households.