秦始皇本纪

Emperor Qin Shi HuangQin Shi HuangThe First EmperorHe unified China, built the Great Wall, burned books, and ruled by terror — and died terrified that no one would ever believe his dynasty would last.View profile → was the son of King Zhuangxiang of Qin. While serving as a hostage in Zhao, the king had encountered Lü Buwei's concubine, fell in love with her, and took her as his wife. She gave birth to Shi Huang. He was born in the first month of the forty-eighth year of King Zhao's reign at Handan. At birth he was named Zheng, with the surname Zhao. At thirteen, King Zhuangxiang died and Zheng succeeded to the throne as King of Qin.

Emperor Qin Shi HuangQin Shi HuangThe First EmperorHe unified China, built the Great Wall, burned books, and ruled by terror — and died terrified that no one would ever believe his dynasty would last.View profile → was the son of King Zhuangxiang of Qin. While serving as a hostage in Zhao, the king had encountered Lü Buwei's concubine, fell in love with her, and took her as his wife. She gave birth to Shi Huang. He was born in the first month of the forty-eighth year of King Zhao's reign at Handan. At birth he was named Zheng, with the surname Zhao. At thirteen, King Zhuangxiang died and Zheng succeeded to the throne as King of Qin.

At that time, Qin's territories already included Ba, Shu, and Hanzhong; had crossed Wan to possess Ying and established Nanjun Commandery. To the north it had taken Shang Commandery and the lands beyond, acquiring the commanderies of Hedong, Taiyuan, and Shangdang. Eastward it reached Xingyang, had destroyed the Eastern and Western Zhou dynasties, and established Sanchuan Commandery. Lü Buwei served as Prime Minister, enfeoffed with a hundred thousand households, titled Lord Wenxin. He gathered scholars and wanderers, seeking to unify the realm. Li SiLi SiQin's Great ChancellorThe man who designed the imperial system that lasted two thousand years — and was executed by being cut in half with his family.View profile → served as a chamberlain. Meng Ao, Wang Yi, Qiaogong, and others held the position of General. The king was young and had only just ascended the throne, entrusting state affairs to his ministers. Jinyang rebelled in the first year, and General Meng Ao attacked and pacified it. In the second year, Qiaogong led troops against Juan, killing thirty thousand men. In the third year, Meng Ao attacked Han, capturing thirteen cities. Wang Yi was killed. In the tenth month, General Meng Ao attacked Wei at Changyou and Guili. There was a great famine that year. In the fourth year, Changyou and Guili were taken. In the third month, armies stood down. Qin's hostages returned from Zhao, and the Zhao heir apparent departed for his own country. In the tenth month, on the day of Gengyin, locusts came from the east, darkening the sky. A plague afflicted the realm. The people contributed a thousand shi of grain each, and were granted one rank of nobility. In the fifth year, General Meng Ao attacked Wei, pacifying Suanzao, Yan, Xu, Changping, Yongqiu, and Shanyang—all were taken, twenty cities in all. Eastern Commandery was first established. There was thunder in winter. In the sixth year, Han, Wei, Zhao, Wei, and Chu jointly attacked Qin and took Shouling. Qin mobilized its forces, and the five-state army withdrew. Qin captured Wei, pressing toward Eastern Commandery; its ruler Xiu led his clan to relocate to Yewang, using the mountains to protect the Wei heartland along the Yellow River. In the seventh year, a comet first appeared in the east, was seen in the north, and in the fifth month appeared in the west. General Meng Ao died while attacking Long, Gu, Qingdu, and returning to attack Ji. The comet appeared again in the west for sixteen days. Xia Empress Dowager died. In the eighth year, the king's brother Cheng Jiao led an army to attack Zhao, then rebelled. He died at Tunliu; his officers were all executed, and his people were relocated to Lintao. General Bi died; the soldiers at Tunliu and Puhe rebelled, and their corpses were desecrated. Fish were swept far upstream by flooding; light carts and heavy horses went east seeking food. Lao Ai was enfeoffed as Lord Changxin. He was given the lands of Shanyang and resided there. Palaces, carriages, clothing, gardens, and hunting grounds were all at Lao Ai's disposal. Every matter, great or small, was decided by him. The commandery of Hedong and Taiyuan was further reorganized into Lao Ai's domain. In the ninth year, a comet appeared and stretched across the sky. Qin attacked Wei at Yuan and Puyang. In the fourth month, the king stopped at Yong. On the day of Jiayou, the king came of age and donned his sword. Lord Changxin Lao Ai plotted rebellion and, when discovered, forged the royal seal and the empress dowager's seal to mobilize county soldiers, guards, palace cavalry, chiefs of Rong and Di states, and his retainers, intending to attack Qinian Palace in revolt. The king learned of this and ordered the Chancellor Changping Jun and Changwen Jun to mobilize troops against Lao Ai. Fighting broke out at Xianyang; hundreds were killed, all receiving noble rank. The eunuchs who fought were also granted rank. Lao Ai and his men were defeated and fled. The king then proclaimed throughout the realm: Whoever captures Lao Ai alive would receive a million coins; whoever kills him, five hundred thousand. Lao Ai and his associates were all captured. The Guard Commander Jie, the Interior Secretary Si, the Deputy Director of the Menial Services Yi, the Chamberlain of the Realm Qi and nineteen others were all displayed as severed heads. Their bodies were torn apart in a cart procession, and their families were exterminated. Their lesser retainers were sentenced to forced labor. Over four thousand households connected to Lao Ai were stripped of noble rank and exiled to Shu, settled at Fangling. In the fourth month, there was bitter cold, and people died. Yang Ruanshan attacked Yanshi. A comet appeared in the west, then in the north, remaining visible south of the Dipper for eighty days. In the tenth year, Chancellor Lü Buwei was implicated in the Lao Ai affair and dismissed. Huan Yi became General. Envoys from Qi and Zhao arrived for a banquet. A man of Daqiang named Wei Liao came and addressed the king: With Qin's strength, the feudal lords are like district magistrates. Your subject fears only that the lords will form a coalition and strike when you least expect it—this is precisely what destroyed the rulers of Jin, Wu, and Min. If Your Majesty would not stint in wealth and gifts to corrupt their powerful ministers, you could disrupt their plans. It would require no more than three hundred thousand pieces of gold to bring all the lords to heel. The king accepted his strategy and treated Wei Liao with extraordinary courtesy, even providing him with food and clothing matching his own. Wei Liao remarked: The King of Qin has a bee-like nose, long narrow eyes, a hawk's chest, a wolf's voice, and a tiger's heart. He shows little grace but possesses a beast's nature. In poverty he finds it easy to humble himself, but once successful, he lightly devours others. I am only a commoner, yet when we meet he keeps lowering himself before me. If this man were to achieve his ambitions and rule all under heaven, everyone would become his captives. I cannot stay long in his company. He departed. The king realized his departure and firmly detained him, appointing him as a Wei General of Qin, and ultimately adopted his strategies. Meanwhile, Li SiLi SiQin's Great ChancellorThe man who designed the imperial system that lasted two thousand years — and was executed by being cut in half with his family.View profile → came to power.

At that time, Qin's territories already included Ba, Shu, and Hanzhong; had crossed Wan to possess Ying and established Nanjun Commandery. To the north it had taken Shang Commandery and the lands beyond, acquiring the commanderies of Hedong, Taiyuan, and Shangdang. Eastward it reached Xingyang, had destroyed the Eastern and Western Zhou dynasties, and established Sanchuan Commandery. Lü Buwei served as Prime Minister, enfeoffed with a hundred thousand households, titled Lord Wenxin. He gathered scholars and wanderers, seeking to unify the realm. Li SiLi SiQin's Great ChancellorThe man who designed the imperial system that lasted two thousand years — and was executed by being cut in half with his family.View profile → served as a chamberlain. Meng Ao, Wang Yi, Qiaogong, and others held the position of General. The king was young and had only just ascended the throne, entrusting state affairs to his ministers. Jinyang rebelled in the first year, and General Meng Ao attacked and pacified it. In the second year, Qiaogong led troops against Juan, killing thirty thousand men. In the third year, Meng Ao attacked Han, capturing thirteen cities. Wang Yi was killed. In the tenth month, General Meng Ao attacked Wei at Changyou and Guili. There was a great famine that year. In the fourth year, Changyou and Guili were taken. In the third month, armies stood down. Qin's hostages returned from Zhao, and the Zhao heir apparent departed for his own country. In the tenth month, on the day of Gengyin, locusts came from the east, darkening the sky. A plague afflicted the realm. The people contributed a thousand shi of grain each, and were granted one rank of nobility. In the fifth year, General Meng Ao attacked Wei, pacifying Suanzao, Yan, Xu, Changping, Yongqiu, and Shanyang—all were taken, twenty cities in all. Eastern Commandery was first established. There was thunder in winter. In the sixth year, Han, Wei, Zhao, Wei, and Chu jointly attacked Qin and took Shouling. Qin mobilized its forces, and the five-state army withdrew. Qin captured Wei, pressing toward Eastern Commandery; its ruler Xiu led his clan to relocate to Yewang, using the mountains to protect the Wei heartland along the Yellow River. In the seventh year, a comet first appeared in the east, was seen in the north, and in the fifth month appeared in the west. General Meng Ao died while attacking Long, Gu, Qingdu, and returning to attack Ji. The comet appeared again in the west for sixteen days. Xia Empress Dowager died. In the eighth year, the king's brother Cheng Jiao led an army to attack Zhao, then rebelled. He died at Tunliu; his officers were all executed, and his people were relocated to Lintao. General Bi died; the soldiers at Tunliu and Puhe rebelled, and their corpses were desecrated. Fish were swept far upstream by flooding; light carts and heavy horses went east seeking food. Lao Ai was enfeoffed as Lord Changxin. He was given the lands of Shanyang and resided there. Palaces, carriages, clothing, gardens, and hunting grounds were all at Lao Ai's disposal. Every matter, great or small, was decided by him. The commandery of Hedong and Taiyuan was further reorganized into Lao Ai's domain. In the ninth year, a comet appeared and stretched across the sky. Qin attacked Wei at Yuan and Puyang. In the fourth month, the king stopped at Yong. On the day of Jiayou, the king came of age and donned his sword. Lord Changxin Lao Ai plotted rebellion and, when discovered, forged the royal seal and the empress dowager's seal to mobilize county soldiers, guards, palace cavalry, chiefs of Rong and Di states, and his retainers, intending to attack Qinian Palace in revolt. The king learned of this and ordered the Chancellor Changping Jun and Changwen Jun to mobilize troops against Lao Ai. Fighting broke out at Xianyang; hundreds were killed, all receiving noble rank. The eunuchs who fought were also granted rank. Lao Ai and his men were defeated and fled. The king then proclaimed throughout the realm: Whoever captures Lao Ai alive would receive a million coins; whoever kills him, five hundred thousand. Lao Ai and his associates were all captured. The Guard Commander Jie, the Interior Secretary Si, the Deputy Director of the Menial Services Yi, the Chamberlain of the Realm Qi and nineteen others were all displayed as severed heads. Their bodies were torn apart in a cart procession, and their families were exterminated. Their lesser retainers were sentenced to forced labor. Over four thousand households connected to Lao Ai were stripped of noble rank and exiled to Shu, settled at Fangling. In the fourth month, there was bitter cold, and people died. Yang Ruanshan attacked Yanshi. A comet appeared in the west, then in the north, remaining visible south of the Dipper for eighty days. In the tenth year, Chancellor Lü Buwei was implicated in the Lao Ai affair and dismissed. Huan Yi became General. Envoys from Qi and Zhao arrived for a banquet. A man of Daqiang named Wei Liao came and addressed the king: With Qin's strength, the feudal lords are like district magistrates. Your subject fears only that the lords will form a coalition and strike when you least expect it—this is precisely what destroyed the rulers of Jin, Wu, and Min. If Your Majesty would not stint in wealth and gifts to corrupt their powerful ministers, you could disrupt their plans. It would require no more than three hundred thousand pieces of gold to bring all the lords to heel. The king accepted his strategy and treated Wei Liao with extraordinary courtesy, even providing him with food and clothing matching his own. Wei Liao remarked: The King of Qin has a bee-like nose, long narrow eyes, a hawk's chest, a wolf's voice, and a tiger's heart. He shows little grace but possesses a beast's nature. In poverty he finds it easy to humble himself, but once successful, he lightly devours others. I am only a commoner, yet when we meet he keeps lowering himself before me. If this man were to achieve his ambitions and rule all under heaven, everyone would become his captives. I cannot stay long in his company. He departed. The king realized his departure and firmly detained him, appointing him as a Wei General of Qin, and ultimately adopted his strategies. Meanwhile, Li SiLi SiQin's Great ChancellorThe man who designed the imperial system that lasted two thousand years — and was executed by being cut in half with his family.View profile → came to power.

At that time, Qin's territories already included Ba, Shu, and Hanzhong; had crossed Wan to possess Ying and established Nanjun Commandery. To the north it had taken Shang Commandery and the lands beyond, acquiring the commanderies of Hedong, Taiyuan, and Shangdang. Eastward it reached Xingyang, had destroyed the Eastern and Western Zhou dynasties, and established Sanchuan Commandery. Lü Buwei served as Prime Minister, enfeoffed with a hundred thousand households, titled Lord Wenxin. He gathered scholars and wanderers, seeking to unify the realm. Li SiLi SiQin's Great ChancellorThe man who designed the imperial system that lasted two thousand years — and was executed by being cut in half with his family.View profile → served as a chamberlain. Meng Ao, Wang Yi, Qiaogong, and others held the position of General. The king was young and had only just ascended the throne, entrusting state affairs to his ministers. Jinyang rebelled in the first year, and General Meng Ao attacked and pacified it. In the second year, Qiaogong led troops against Juan, killing thirty thousand men. In the third year, Meng Ao attacked Han, capturing thirteen cities. Wang Yi was killed. In the tenth month, General Meng Ao attacked Wei at Changyou and Guili. There was a great famine that year. In the fourth year, Changyou and Guili were taken. In the third month, armies stood down. Qin's hostages returned from Zhao, and the Zhao heir apparent departed for his own country. In the tenth month, on the day of Gengyin, locusts came from the east, darkening the sky. A plague afflicted the realm. The people contributed a thousand shi of grain each, and were granted one rank of nobility. In the fifth year, General Meng Ao attacked Wei, pacifying Suanzao, Yan, Xu, Changping, Yongqiu, and Shanyang—all were taken, twenty cities in all. Eastern Commandery was first established. There was thunder in winter. In the sixth year, Han, Wei, Zhao, Wei, and Chu jointly attacked Qin and took Shouling. Qin mobilized its forces, and the five-state army withdrew. Qin captured Wei, pressing toward Eastern Commandery; its ruler Xiu led his clan to relocate to Yewang, using the mountains to protect the Wei heartland along the Yellow River. In the seventh year, a comet first appeared in the east, was seen in the north, and in the fifth month appeared in the west. General Meng Ao died while attacking Long, Gu, Qingdu, and returning to attack Ji. The comet appeared again in the west for sixteen days. Xia Empress Dowager died. In the eighth year, the king's brother Cheng Jiao led an army to attack Zhao, then rebelled. He died at Tunliu; his officers were all executed, and his people were relocated to Lintao. General Bi died; the soldiers at Tunliu and Puhe rebelled, and their corpses were desecrated. Fish were swept far upstream by flooding; light carts and heavy horses went east seeking food. Lao Ai was enfeoffed as Lord Changxin. He was given the lands of Shanyang and resided there. Palaces, carriages, clothing, gardens, and hunting grounds were all at Lao Ai's disposal. Every matter, great or small, was decided by him. The commandery of Hedong and Taiyuan was further reorganized into Lao Ai's domain. In the ninth year, a comet appeared and stretched across the sky. Qin attacked Wei at Yuan and Puyang. In the fourth month, the king stopped at Yong. On the day of Jiayou, the king came of age and donned his sword. Lord Changxin Lao Ai plotted rebellion and, when discovered, forged the royal seal and the empress dowager's seal to mobilize county soldiers, guards, palace cavalry, chiefs of Rong and Di states, and his retainers, intending to attack Qinian Palace in revolt. The king learned of this and ordered the Chancellor Changping Jun and Changwen Jun to mobilize troops against Lao Ai. Fighting broke out at Xianyang; hundreds were killed, all receiving noble rank. The eunuchs who fought were also granted rank. Lao Ai and his men were defeated and fled. The king then proclaimed throughout the realm: Whoever captures Lao Ai alive would receive a million coins; whoever kills him, five hundred thousand. Lao Ai and his associates were all captured. The Guard Commander Jie, the Interior Secretary Si, the Deputy Director of the Menial Services Yi, the Chamberlain of the Realm Qi and nineteen others were all displayed as severed heads. Their bodies were torn apart in a cart procession, and their families were exterminated. Their lesser retainers were sentenced to forced labor. Over four thousand households connected to Lao Ai were stripped of noble rank and exiled to Shu, settled at Fangling. In the fourth month, there was bitter cold, and people died. Yang Ruanshan attacked Yanshi. A comet appeared in the west, then in the north, remaining visible south of the Dipper for eighty days. In the tenth year, Chancellor Lü Buwei was implicated in the Lao Ai affair and dismissed. Huan Yi became General. Envoys from Qi and Zhao arrived for a banquet. A man of Daqiang named Wei Liao came and addressed the king: With Qin's strength, the feudal lords are like district magistrates. Your subject fears only that the lords will form a coalition and strike when you least expect it—this is precisely what destroyed the rulers of Jin, Wu, and Min. If Your Majesty would not stint in wealth and gifts to corrupt their powerful ministers, you could disrupt their plans. It would require no more than three hundred thousand pieces of gold to bring all the lords to heel. The king accepted his strategy and treated Wei Liao with extraordinary courtesy, even providing him with food and clothing matching his own. Wei Liao remarked: The King of Qin has a bee-like nose, long narrow eyes, a hawk's chest, a wolf's voice, and a tiger's heart. He shows little grace but possesses a beast's nature. In poverty he finds it easy to humble himself, but once successful, he lightly devours others. I am only a commoner, yet when we meet he keeps lowering himself before me. If this man were to achieve his ambitions and rule all under heaven, everyone would become his captives. I cannot stay long in his company. He departed. The king realized his departure and firmly detained him, appointing him as a Wei General of Qin, and ultimately adopted his strategies. Meanwhile, Li SiLi SiQin's Great ChancellorThe man who designed the imperial system that lasted two thousand years — and was executed by being cut in half with his family.View profile → came to power.

In the ninth year, a comet appeared, its light sometimes stretching across the sky. Qin attacked Wei's Yuan and Puyang. In the fourth month, the king lodged at Yong. On the day of Jiyou, the king underwent the capping ceremony and wore a sword. The Marquis of Changxin, Lao Ai, raised a rebellion and was discovered. He forged the king's imperial seal and the queen dowager's seal to mobilize county soldiers, guard soldiers, official cavalry, Rong and Di chieftains, and his own retainers, intending to assault Qinian Palace in revolt. The king, learning of this, ordered Chancellor Changping Jun and Changwen Jun to lead troops against Lao Ai. They fought at Xianyang, killing several hundred. All participants were granted noble ranks, and even the eunuchs who joined the battle each received one grade of rank. Lao Ai and his followers were defeated and fled.

He immediately ordered throughout the state: 'To anyone who captures Lao Ai alive, give a reward of one million cash; to anyone who kills him, five hundred thousand cash.' Eventually all of Lao Ai and his accomplices were captured. Twenty men — including the Commandant of the Palace Guard Jie, the Neishi Si, the Assistant Archers' Commander Jie, and the Prefect of the Palace Gentlemen Qi — were beheaded and their heads displayed. Lao Ai was torn apart by chariots in public punishment, and his clan exterminated. His retainers who had committed minor offenses were sentenced to the 'gathering firewood' penal labor. Over four thousand families were stripped of noble ranks and exiled to Shu, settling at Fangling. In the fourth month, freezing cold caused some deaths. Yang Duanhe attacked Yanshi. A comet was seen in the west and then in the north, visible for eighty days from the Dipper southwards. In the tenth year, Chancellor Lü Buwei was dismissed for his involvement in the Lao Ai affair. Huan Yi was appointed general. Qi and Zhao came to offer a banquet.

A man of Qi, Mao Jiao, addressed the King of Qin, saying: "Qin is now intent on conquering the world, yet Your Majesty has a reputation for banishing his mother, the Empress Dowager. I fear that when the feudal lords hear of this, they will betray Qin." The King of Qin then went to Yong to welcome the Empress Dowager back to Xianyang, and she resumed living in the Sweet Springs Palace. Qin conducted a large-scale search and expelled foreign guests. Li SiLi SiQin's Great ChancellorThe man who designed the imperial system that lasted two thousand years — and was executed by being cut in half with his family.View profile → submitted a memorial of persuasion, and only then was the expulsion order halted. Li SiLi SiQin's Great ChancellorThe man who designed the imperial system that lasted two thousand years — and was executed by being cut in half with his family.View profile → seized the opportunity to advise the King of Qin, requesting to first seize Han in order to intimidate the other states. Thereupon the King sent Li SiLi SiQin's Great ChancellorThe man who designed the imperial system that lasted two thousand years — and was executed by being cut in half with his family.View profile → to subdue Han. The King of Han was alarmed and consulted with Han Fei on how to weaken Qin.

In the thirteenth year, Huan Yi attacked Zhao at Pingyang, killing the Zhao general Hu Zhe and decapitating a hundred thousand troops. The king traveled south to Henan. In the first month, a comet appeared in the east. In the tenth month, Huan Yi attacked Zhao again. In the fourteenth year, he attacked Zhao's army at Pingyang, took Yian, broke through, and killed its general. Huan Yi secured Pingyang and Wucheng. Han Fei went to Qin on a diplomatic mission; Qin, acting on Li SiLi SiQin's Great ChancellorThe man who designed the imperial system that lasted two thousand years — and was executed by being cut in half with his family.View profile →'s counsel, detained him. Han Fei died at Yunyang. The King of Han requested to become a subject. In the fifteenth year, great armies were mobilized in force: one column advanced toward Ye, another toward Taiyuan, taking Langmeng. There was an earthquake. In the sixteenth year, in the ninth month, troops were dispatched to receive territory from Han at the southern Yang. Teng served as acting governor. Men were first ordered to record their ages. Wei presented territory to Qin. Qin established Liyi. In the seventeenth year, the Interior Secretary Teng attacked Han and captured its King An, taking all his territory and establishing it as a commandery called Yingchuan. There was an earthquake. The Empress Dowager Huayang died. There was severe famine among the people. In the eighteenth year, great armies were raised to attack Zhao. Wang Jian commanded the forces from Shangdi, advancing through Jingxing, while Duan He commanded the forces in Hedong and Qiang Hui attacked Zhao. Duan He laid siege to the city of Handan.

Wei Liao said, “The King of Qin is a man with a nose like a wasp, long eyes, the chest of a bird of prey, a voice like a jackal. He lacks generosity and has the heart of a tiger or wolf. When hard-pressed, he easily humbles himself before others, but once he gains power he will also lightly devour men. I am a commoner, yet when he receives me he often personally lowers himself before me. If the King of Qin truly achieves his ambition over the world, everyone under Heaven will become his captives. We cannot keep company for long.” He then fled. The King of Qin realized this and firmly stopped him, appointing him Commandant of Qin, and in the end employed his stratagems. While Li SiLi SiQin's Great ChancellorThe man who designed the imperial system that lasted two thousand years — and was executed by being cut in half with his family.View profile → held power, the King of Qin also followed his plans. The King of Qin valued his plans without cease.

In the nineteenth year, Wang Jian and Qiang Hui completely pacified and seized Zhao's eastern territories, capturing King You of Zhao. They then led their forces to attack Yan, camping at Zhongshan. When the King of Qin visited Handan, he had all those who had ever borne grudges against his mother's family from his days of exile there buried alive. The king returned via Taiyuan and Shang Commandery. The empress dowager, the First Emperor's mother, died. Prince Jia of Zhao led several hundred of his kin to Dai, where he established himself as King of Dai. To the east he joined forces with Yan, and their armies camped at Shanggu. There was a great famine. In the twentieth year, Crown Prince Dan of Yan feared that Qin would bring war to his country. Terrified, he sent Jing Ke to assassinate the King of Qin. The king discovered the plot and had Jing Ke torn apart and displayed. He then sent Wang Jian and Xin Sheng to attack Yan. Yan and Dai mobilized forces to strike the Qin army, but Qin defeated them west of the Yi River. In the twenty-first year, Wang Ben attacked Chu. Additional troops were sent to reinforce Wang Jian's army, and they destroyed the army of Crown Prince Dan, capturing the city of Jicheng and obtaining the head of Crown Prince Dan. The King of Yan retreated eastward to Liaodong and made himself king there. Wang Jian, citing illness and old age, retired. Xinzheng rebelled. Changping Jun was relocated to Ying. There was a heavy snowstorm; it reached two feet five inches deep. In the twenty-second year, Wang Ben attacked Wei, diverting the Yellow River to flood Daliang. The walls of Daliang collapsed, and its king requested surrender. All Wei territory was taken. In the twenty-third year, the King of Qin summoned Wang Jian again and insisted he take command despite his advanced years, sending him to attack Chu. He took the region from Chen south to Pingyu, capturing the King of Chu. The King of Qin toured Ying and Chen. The Chu general Xiang Yan installed Changping Jun as King of Chu and raised a rebellion in Huainan. In the twenty-fourth year, Wang Jian and Meng Wu attacked Chu and broke the Chu army; Changping Jun died, and Xiang Yan subsequently took his own life. In the twenty-fifth year, great armies were mobilized. Wang Ben was sent to attack Yan's Liaodong and captured King Xi of Yan. Returning, he attacked Dai and captured King Jia of Dai. Wang Jian pacified all the southern lands of Chu; he subdued the Yue chieftains and established Kuaiji Commandery. In the fifth month, there was a great feast throughout the realm. In the twenty-sixth year, King Jian of Qi and his minister Hou Sheng mobilized troops to guard their western border, cutting off communication with Qin. The king sent General Wang Ben to attack Qi from the south; he captured King Jian of Qi. Qin had unified all under heaven.

The king commanded his Chancellor and Imperial Historian: In times past, the King of Han presented territory and offered his seal, requesting to become a vassal. But then he broke faith and allied with Zhao and Wei in revolt against us, so we raised armies to punish him and captured his king. Your subject regarded this as beneficial, hoping thereby to end warfare. The King of Zhao sent his minister Li Mu to negotiate a treaty, and we returned his hostages. But then he betrayed our alliance and rebelled in our Taiyuan, so we raised armies to punish him and captured his king. The Prince of Zhao, Jia, set himself up as King of Dai, so we raised armies to destroy him. The King of Wei initially agreed to submit and enter our kingdom, but then plotted with Han and Zhao to strike us, so our generals punished him and broke his power. The King of Chu presented the lands west of Qingyang, but then broke faith and attacked our southern commandery, so we raised armies to punish him, captured his king, and pacified his lands. The King of Yan was corrupt and dissolute; his Crown Prince Dan secretly ordered Jing Ke to commit murder, so our generals punished and destroyed his kingdom. The King of Qi, following Hou Sheng's counsel, broke off relations with our envoys and sought to cause chaos, so our generals punished and captured his king, pacifying the lands of Qi. Your subject, this insignificant person, raised armies to punish violent rebellion. By the blessing of our ancestors and the spirits, all six kings have submitted to their faults. All under heaven is greatly pacified. Now if titles and names are not changed, there will be no way to commemorate this achievement or transmit it to later generations. Discuss the imperial title.

Chancellor Wan, the Imperial Historian Fu, the Commandant of Justice Li SiLi SiQin's Great ChancellorThe man who designed the imperial system that lasted two thousand years — and was executed by being cut in half with his family.View profile → and others all said: In ancient times, the Five Emperors ruled territories a thousand li square, and beyond that their vassals and Yi-barbarian lords might or might not come to court. The Son of Heaven could not control them. Now Your Majesty has raised righteous armies, punished the cruel bandits, and pacified all under heaven. Within the seas, commanderies and counties have been established; laws and decrees follow one uniform standard. This has never occurred since the dawn of time—not even the Five Emperors could match it. Your servants, together with the Erudites, have deliberated: In antiquity there were the Heavenly Sovereign, the Earthly Sovereign, and the Great Sovereign, and the Great Sovereign was the most honored. We, your servants, venture our lives to request the title of Great Sovereign for Your Majesty. Edicts shall be called 'decrees,' commands shall be called 'rescripts,' and the Son of Heaven shall call himself 'Zhen.'

The king said: Remove 'Great,' retain 'Sovereign,' and adopt the imperial title from highest antiquity. The title shall be 'Emperor.' All other matters shall follow this discussion. The decree stated: Approved. King Zhuangxiang was posthumously honored as Taishang Huang, the Supreme Emperor. The emperor decreed: I have heard that in deepest antiquity there were titles but no posthumous names. In middle antiquity, there were titles, and upon death the posthumous name was based on conduct. If this were the case, sons would be discussing fathers and ministers would be discussing rulers—this is most unreasonable, and I cannot accept it. From now on, the practice of posthumous names is abolished. I am the First Emperor. Successive generations shall be numbered—the Second, the Third, and so on to the ten-thousandth generation, transmitting it endlessly.

The First Emperor, following the cycle of the Five Virtues, maintained that Zhou possessed Fire Virtue. Since Qin has succeeded Zhou, it takes the virtue that overcomes the previous—Water Virtue. Now the era of Water Virtue begins. The new year was proclaimed; all court congratulations and tributes shall begin on the first day of the tenth month. Clothing, banners, and flags shall all be black. Numbers shall follow the six-fold system. Tallies and official caps shall all be six cun; carriages shall be six chi wide; six chi constitute a pace; six horses draw each carriage. The Yellow River was renamed De River, marking the beginning of Water Virtue. The character must be resolute and severe; all matters shall be decided by law. There shall be no benevolence, kindness, or righteousness. Only by conforming to the numbers of the Five Virtues will this be achieved. Therefore the laws were enforced urgently, and those who violated them were not pardoned.

Their territory extended east to the sea and to Joseon, west to Lintao and the lands of the Qiang, south to the northern village households, and north it took the Yellow River as its border, extending along the Yin Mountains to Liaodong. Twelve hundred thousand wealthy families from across the realm were relocated to Xianyang. All the ancestral temples as well as the Zhangtai and Shanglin Park were located south of the Wei River.

Each time Qin defeated a vassal state, it would replicate the defeated lord's palace, constructing it on the northern slope of Xianyang, facing south toward the Wei River, stretching eastward from the Yong Gate to the Jing and Wei rivers, with palace halls and covered walkways connected throughout. The beautiful women and musical bells and drums taken from the conquered lords were installed there.

In the twenty-eighth year, the First Emperor traveled east through the commanderies and counties and ascended Mount Zouyi. He erected a stone monument there, and together with the scholars of Lu discussed inscribing the stone to praise Qin's virtue, and debated the rituals of the Feng and Shan sacrifices and the worship of mountains and rivers. He then ascended Mount Tai, erected a stone monument, performed the Feng sacrifice, and offered sacrifices. When he descended, a violent storm struck. He took shelter beneath a tree, and in gratitude, conferred upon that tree the title of Five Excellencies. He performed the Shan sacrifice at Liangfu. The words inscribed on the stone he had erected were: "The emperor ascended the throne, established institutions and clarified the laws, and his ministers cultivated themselves with care. Twenty-six years ago, he first unified all under heaven, and none failed to submit. He personally toured distant regions and attended to the people. He ascended this sacred Mount Tai and surveyed the eastern extremes. His ministers recalled his deeds and meditated upon the origins of his enterprise, reverently praising his virtue. He regulated the governance and ensured its proper operation, so that all endeavors found their proper place and there were established standards. The great righteousness, splendid and bright, extends to later generations, to be upheld without change. The sagely emperor, having pacified all under heaven, never relaxed his efforts in governance. He rose early and rested late, building lasting benefit, devoting himself especially to education. He disseminated the classics and transmitted them widely, so that near and far all understood the principles, and all received his sagely guidance. High and low were clearly distinguished, men and women observed proper propriety, and all diligently attended to their duties. This clarity separated the inner from the outer, and nothing was unclean—these teachings extended to future generations. His transforming influence reached endlessly; he followed the former king's charge and forever upheld the great prohibitions."

In the twenty-eighth year, the First Emperor traveled east through the commanderies and counties and ascended Mount Zouyi. He erected a stone monument there, and together with the scholars of Lu discussed inscribing the stone to praise Qin's virtue, and debated the rituals of the Feng and Shan sacrifices and the worship of mountains and rivers. He then ascended Mount Tai, erected a stone monument, performed the Feng sacrifice, and offered sacrifices. When he descended, a violent storm struck. He took shelter beneath a tree, and in gratitude, conferred upon that tree the title of Five Excellencies. He performed the Shan sacrifice at Liangfu. The words inscribed on the stone he had erected were: "The emperor ascended the throne, established institutions and clarified the laws, and his ministers cultivated themselves with care. Twenty-six years ago, he first unified all under heaven, and none failed to submit. He personally toured distant regions and attended to the people. He ascended this sacred Mount Tai and surveyed the eastern extremes. His ministers recalled his deeds and meditated upon the origins of his enterprise, reverently praising his virtue. He regulated the governance and ensured its proper operation, so that all endeavors found their proper place and there were established standards. The great righteousness, splendid and bright, extends to later generations, to be upheld without change. The sagely emperor, having pacified all under heaven, never relaxed his efforts in governance. He rose early and rested late, building lasting benefit, devoting himself especially to education. He disseminated the classics and transmitted them widely, so that near and far all understood the principles, and all received his sagely guidance. High and low were clearly distinguished, men and women observed proper propriety, and all diligently attended to their duties. This clarity separated the inner from the outer, and nothing was unclean—these teachings extended to future generations. His transforming influence reached endlessly; he followed the former king's charge and forever upheld the great prohibitions."

In the twenty-eighth year, the First Emperor traveled east through the commanderies and counties and ascended Mount Zouyi. He erected a stone monument there, and together with the scholars of Lu discussed inscribing the stone to praise Qin's virtue, and debated the rituals of the Feng and Shan sacrifices and the worship of mountains and rivers. He then ascended Mount Tai, erected a stone monument, performed the Feng sacrifice, and offered sacrifices. When he descended, a violent storm struck. He took shelter beneath a tree, and in gratitude, conferred upon that tree the title of Five Excellencies. He performed the Shan sacrifice at Liangfu. The words inscribed on the stone he had erected were: "The emperor ascended the throne, established institutions and clarified the laws, and his ministers cultivated themselves with care. Twenty-six years ago, he first unified all under heaven, and none failed to submit. He personally toured distant regions and attended to the people. He ascended this sacred Mount Tai and surveyed the eastern extremes. His ministers recalled his deeds and meditated upon the origins of his enterprise, reverently praising his virtue. He regulated the governance and ensured its proper operation, so that all endeavors found their proper place and there were established standards. The great righteousness, splendid and bright, extends to later generations, to be upheld without change. The sagely emperor, having pacified all under heaven, never relaxed his efforts in governance. He rose early and rested late, building lasting benefit, devoting himself especially to education. He disseminated the classics and transmitted them widely, so that near and far all understood the principles, and all received his sagely guidance. High and low were clearly distinguished, men and women observed proper propriety, and all diligently attended to their duties. This clarity separated the inner from the outer, and nothing was unclean—these teachings extended to future generations. His transforming influence reached endlessly; he followed the former king's charge and forever upheld the great prohibitions."

In the twenty-eighth year, the First Emperor traveled east through the commanderies and counties and ascended Mount Zouyi. He erected a stone monument there, and together with the scholars of Lu discussed inscribing the stone to praise Qin's virtue, and debated the rituals of the Feng and Shan sacrifices and the worship of mountains and rivers. He then ascended Mount Tai, erected a stone monument, performed the Feng sacrifice, and offered sacrifices. When he descended, a violent storm struck. He took shelter beneath a tree, and in gratitude, conferred upon that tree the title of Five Excellencies. He performed the Shan sacrifice at Liangfu. The words inscribed on the stone he had erected were: "The emperor ascended the throne, established institutions and clarified the laws, and his ministers cultivated themselves with care. Twenty-six years ago, he first unified all under heaven, and none failed to submit. He personally toured distant regions and attended to the people. He ascended this sacred Mount Tai and surveyed the eastern extremes. His ministers recalled his deeds and meditated upon the origins of his enterprise, reverently praising his virtue. He regulated the governance and ensured its proper operation, so that all endeavors found their proper place and there were established standards. The great righteousness, splendid and bright, extends to later generations, to be upheld without change. The sagely emperor, having pacified all under heaven, never relaxed his efforts in governance. He rose early and rested late, building lasting benefit, devoting himself especially to education. He disseminated the classics and transmitted them widely, so that near and far all understood the principles, and all received his sagely guidance. High and low were clearly distinguished, men and women observed proper propriety, and all diligently attended to their duties. This clarity separated the inner from the outer, and nothing was unclean—these teachings extended to future generations. His transforming influence reached endlessly; he followed the former king's charge and forever upheld the great prohibitions."

This would be sons discussing their fathers, ministers discussing their lord — utterly meaningless. I do not adopt it. From now on, abolish the posthumous title system. I shall be the First Emperor. Later generations will be numbered: Second Emperor, Third Emperor, on to ten thousand generations, transmitted without end. The First Emperor examined the cycle of the Five Powers' succession and concluded that the Zhou dynasty held the Power of Fire, and since Qin replaced Zhou, its power must be the one that fire cannot overcome. Now is the beginning of Water Power. He changed the calendar, making the year begin in the tenth month, and court celebrations were held on the first day of the tenth month. Clothing, banners, tallies, and flags all honored black. The number six became the standard: tallies and ceremonial caps were six inches, the carriage was six feet wide, six feet made a pace, and the chariot was drawn by six horses. He renamed the Yellow River 'River of Virtue,' marking the start of the Water Power.

The King of Qin, having unified all under heaven, took the title Emperor, and journeyed eastward to Langye. The marquises Wang Li, marquis of Wucheng, and Wang Ben, marquis of Tongwu; the counts Zhao Hai, marquis of Jiancheng; Cheng, marquis of Changwu; and Feng Wuzé, marquis of Wuxin; the chancellors Wei Lin and Wang Wan; the ministers Li SiLi SiQin's Great ChancellorThe man who designed the imperial system that lasted two thousand years — and was executed by being cut in half with his family.View profile → and Wang Wu; the Grand Masters Zhao Ying and Yang Liu—all accompanied him and participated in discussions at the seashore. They said: "In ancient times, emperors ruled territories no larger than a thousand li, with each vassal guarding its own borders. Some paid homage, others did not; they encroached upon and attacked one another, engaged in ruthless warfare that never ceased. Yet they inscribed their deeds on metal and stone, considering these their records. The Five Emperors and Three Kings of antiquity practiced different teachings and unclear legal systems. They borrowed the prestige of spirits and deities to deceive distant peoples, but their actual accomplishments did not match their names, so their reigns did not last. Before they died, their vassals betrayed them and their laws went unheeded. Now the emperor has unified all within the seas, established commanderies and counties, and the realm enjoys peace. He has illumined the ancestral temples, embodied the Way, and practiced virtue—his titles are perfectly complete. The ministers, joining together, praise the emperor's accomplishments, and inscribe them on metal and stone as a lasting classic."

The King of Qin, having unified all under heaven, took the title Emperor, and journeyed eastward to Langye. The marquises Wang Li, marquis of Wucheng, and Wang Ben, marquis of Tongwu; the counts Zhao Hai, marquis of Jiancheng; Cheng, marquis of Changwu; and Feng Wuzé, marquis of Wuxin; the chancellors Wei Lin and Wang Wan; the ministers Li SiLi SiQin's Great ChancellorThe man who designed the imperial system that lasted two thousand years — and was executed by being cut in half with his family.View profile → and Wang Wu; the Grand Masters Zhao Ying and Yang Liu—all accompanied him and participated in discussions at the seashore. They said: "In ancient times, emperors ruled territories no larger than a thousand li, with each vassal guarding its own borders. Some paid homage, others did not; they encroached upon and attacked one another, engaged in ruthless warfare that never ceased. Yet they inscribed their deeds on metal and stone, considering these their records. The Five Emperors and Three Kings of antiquity practiced different teachings and unclear legal systems. They borrowed the prestige of spirits and deities to deceive distant peoples, but their actual accomplishments did not match their names, so their reigns did not last. Before they died, their vassals betrayed them and their laws went unheeded. Now the emperor has unified all within the seas, established commanderies and counties, and the realm enjoys peace. He has illumined the ancestral temples, embodied the Way, and practiced virtue—his titles are perfectly complete. The ministers, joining together, praise the emperor's accomplishments, and inscribe them on metal and stone as a lasting classic."

When this was done, the Qi man Xu Fu presented a petition saying: "There are three divine mountains in the sea, called Penglai, Fangzhang, and Yingzhou, where immortals dwell. I beg to purify myself through fasting and, with boys and girls, seek them." The emperor therefore sent Xu Fu with several thousand boys and girls to go to sea seeking the immortals.

The emperor returned, passing through Pengcheng. He fasted and prayed, wishing to retrieve the Zhou tripod from the Si River. He dispatched a thousand men to dive into the water, but they failed to find it. He then crossed the Huai River to the southwest, going to Mount Heng and Nanjun. He sailed up the Yangtze to the shrine on Mount Xiang. A great wind arose, and he nearly could not cross. The emperor asked the scholars: "Who is the Xiang Lord?" They replied: "I have heard that he was the daughter of Emperor Yao, the wife of Emperor Shun, buried here." The emperor flew into a rage and sent three thousand convicts to cut down all the trees on Mount Xiang, turning the mountain bare and red. The emperor returned from Nanjun via the Wuguan pass.

On the eastern observation terrace, it read: "In the twenty-ninth year, the emperor traveled in spring, surveying distant regions. He reached the sea's edge, ascended Zhifuzhi, and shone in the morning light. His ministers gazed upon the vast splendor and reflected upon the clarity of his governance. The sacred law was newly established, bringing order within the borders, punishing the violent without. His martial might extended everywhere, shaking the four extremes as Qin destroyed the six kings. He unified all under heaven, banishing harm and ending conflict, forever sheathing weapons. The emperor's enlightened virtue governed the realm without slackening. He established great righteousness and prepared defenses and weapons, all properly marked and ordered. Officials followed their duties, each knowing what was required, with nothing questionable. The common people transformed; distant and near alike followed the same standards, surpassing the errors of antiquity. Once offices were properly established, descendants would continue the work, receiving the sagely governance forever. The ministers praised his virtue, reverently honoring his sacred achievements, and begged to inscribe them at Zhifuzhi."

On the eastern observation terrace, it read: "In the twenty-ninth year, the emperor traveled in spring, surveying distant regions. He reached the sea's edge, ascended Zhifuzhi, and shone in the morning light. His ministers gazed upon the vast splendor and reflected upon the clarity of his governance. The sacred law was newly established, bringing order within the borders, punishing the violent without. His martial might extended everywhere, shaking the four extremes as Qin destroyed the six kings. He unified all under heaven, banishing harm and ending conflict, forever sheathing weapons. The emperor's enlightened virtue governed the realm without slackening. He established great righteousness and prepared defenses and weapons, all properly marked and ordered. Officials followed their duties, each knowing what was required, with nothing questionable. The common people transformed; distant and near alike followed the same standards, surpassing the errors of antiquity. Once offices were properly established, descendants would continue the work, receiving the sagely governance forever. The ministers praised his virtue, reverently honoring his sacred achievements, and begged to inscribe them at Zhifuzhi."

In the thirtieth year, nothing noteworthy occurred.

In the thirty-first year, twelfth month, the name of the La festival was changed to Jiaping. Common people were each given six dan of millet and two sheep per village. The emperor, traveling in disguise through Xianyang with four armed warriors, went out at night and encountered bandits at Lanchi Pool, who nearly overwhelmed them. The warriors killed the bandits, and a thorough search was conducted throughout Guanzhong for twenty days. The price of millet rose to sixteen hundred per dan.

In the thirty-first year, twelfth month, the name of the La festival was changed to Jiaping. Common people were each given six dan of millet and two sheep per village. The emperor, traveling in disguise through Xianyang with four armed warriors, went out at night and encountered bandits at Lanchi Pool, who nearly overwhelmed them. The warriors killed the bandits, and a thorough search was conducted throughout Guanzhong for twenty days. The price of millet rose to sixteen hundred per dan.

In the thirty-second year, the emperor went to Jieshi and sent a Yan man named Lu Sheng to seek the immortals Xianmen and Gaozhi. He inscribed the stone at Jieshi. He demolished the city walls and opened the flood defenses. The inscription read: "He raised armies to punish the unjust, to destroy rebels and end violence. Through martial might he wiped out the rebellious; through civilized governance he restored the innocent, so that all hearts submitted. He rewarded according to merit, his favor extending even to cattle and horses, his kindness enriching the land. The emperor exerted his authority and unified the vassal states, first achieving great peace. He demolished city walls, opened waterways, and removed hazardous obstacles. Once the terrain was pacified, the common people had no cause for grievance, and all under heaven were content. Men enjoyed their fields, women attended to their work, each enterprise in proper order. His favor embraced all endeavors; those working together in the fields found contentment. The ministers praised his achievements, begging that this stone be inscribed as an enduring standard."

He then sent Han Wuzhong, Hou Gong, and Shi Sheng to seek the elixir of immortality.

The erudite replied, "I have heard that they were the daughters of Yao, wives of Shun, and were buried here." Thereupon the First Emperor flew into a great rage. He sent three thousand convict laborers to fell all the trees on Mount Xiang, stripping the mountain bare. The emperor then returned from Nan Province via the Wu Pass. In the twenty-ninth year, the First Emperor toured the east. When he reached Bolangsha in Yangwu, he was startled by bandits. The search failed to find them, so he ordered a massive ten-day manhunt throughout the empire. He climbed Mount Zhifu and carved a stone inscription. The inscription read: 'In the twenty-ninth year, in mid-spring, the warm force was just beginning to stir. The emperor toured the east, inspected and ascended Mount Zhifu, and gazed out over the sea.'

The emperor held a banquet at the Xianyang Palace, where seventy scholars came forward to offer birthday greetings. The Vice Director Zhou Qingchen presented praise, saying: "In former times, Qin's territory was no larger than a thousand li. Relying on Your Majesty's divine sageliness and clarity, you have pacified all within the seas, driven away the barbarians, and everywhere the sun shines, none fails to submit. You have changed the vassal states into commanderies and counties, so that everyone lives in peace without the misery of war, and this will be passed on to countless generations. Since antiquity, no ruler has matched Your Majesty's majesty and virtue." The emperor was pleased.

The scholar Chunyu Yue from Qi spoke up: "I have heard that the kings of Yin and Zhou ruled for over a thousand years because they enfeoffed their sons and meritorious officials as branches and supports. Now Your Majesty possesses all within the seas, yet your sons are common men. If trouble like Tian Chang or the Six Ministers arose, who would come to the rescue? Affairs that do not follow ancient precedent cannot last long—this is what I have never heard. Qingchen now flatters you to your face, thereby magnifying Your Majesty's faults—this is not the behavior of a loyal minister." The emperor referred the matter to the assembled officials.

The scholar Chunyu Yue from Qi spoke up: "I have heard that the kings of Yin and Zhou ruled for over a thousand years because they enfeoffed their sons and meritorious officials as branches and supports. Now Your Majesty possesses all within the seas, yet your sons are common men. If trouble like Tian Chang or the Six Ministers arose, who would come to the rescue? Affairs that do not follow ancient precedent cannot last long—this is what I have never heard. Qingchen now flatters you to your face, thereby magnifying Your Majesty's faults—this is not the behavior of a loyal minister." The emperor referred the matter to the assembled officials.

In the thirty-fifth year, roads were constructed, connecting Jiuyuan to Yunyang, cutting through mountains and filling valleys to create a direct route. The First Emperor considered Xianyang too crowded and felt the former kings' palaces were too small. He had heard that King Wen of Zhou made his capital at Feng and King Wu at Hao, and that between Feng and Hao lay the emperors' capital. He therefore ordered the construction of a palace in the Shanglin Garden south of the Wei River. First he built the front hall called Epang: five hundred paces from east to west, fifty zhang from north to south, large enough to seat ten thousand below and tall enough to fly banners five zhang high. Surrounding galleries and covered walkways extended from the hall directly to the southern mountains. He marked the mountain peaks as ceremonial gates. He built an elevated walkway from Epang crossing the Wei River to connect with Xianyang, modeled after the celestial pole's corridor crossing the Milky Way to reach the Encampment star. The Epang Palace was not yet completed; when finished, he intended to give it a proper name. Because construction was at Epang, people called it the Epang Palace.

Over seven hundred thousand men who had been condemned to palace service and forced labor were divided between the construction of the E'fang Palace and the Lishan mausoleum. Stone sarcophagi were quarried from the Northern Mountains, while materials were brought from the Shu and Jing regions. In Guanzhong there were more than three hundred palaces, and beyond the passes over four hundred. A stone was erected at Quxian on the eastern seaboard to mark Qin's eastern gate. Thirty thousand families were relocated to Liyi, and fifty thousand to Yunyang, all exempt from corvée labor for ten years.

Lu Sheng said to the First Emperor: "Your servants have searched for divine mushrooms and elixirs of immortality, but we have never encountered the immortals. Indeed, harmful forces seem to block our path. When performing these rituals, Your Majesty should occasionally travel in disguise to ward off evil spirits—only when evil spirits are banished will true immortals appear. If your ministers know where you dwell, it harms the spirits. True immortals do not get wet when entering water, do not burn when entering fire, ride the clouds and mist, and share eternity with heaven and earth. Now Your Majesty governs the realm, but cannot achieve tranquility. I ask that the palaces where you reside be kept secret from all, and perhaps the elixir of immortality may yet be obtained."

The First Emperor replied: "I admire the true immortals and shall call myself the 'True Man,' no longer referring to myself as 'I.'" He ordered that within two hundred li of Xianyang, over two hundred seventy palaces and pavilions be connected by covered walkways and secret passages, filled with curtains, musical instruments, drums, and beauties, each under its own officials who did not move. Wherever the emperor traveled in disguise, anyone who revealed the location would be executed.

The First Emperor visited Liangshan Palace. From the mountain he observed that the prime minister's carriages and attendants were too numerous, and he was displeased. A palace eunuch informed the prime minister, who thereafter reduced his retinue. The First Emperor flew into a rage: "Someone in my service leaked my words!" He investigated and interrogated those present, but no one confessed. He therefore ordered the arrest and execution of all who had been standing nearby. From that time on, no one knew where the emperor went. Court matters and the dispatch of affairs were handled entirely at the Xianyang Palace.

The First Emperor visited Liangshan Palace. From the mountain he observed that the prime minister's carriages and attendants were too numerous, and he was displeased. A palace eunuch informed the prime minister, who thereafter reduced his retinue. The First Emperor flew into a rage: "Someone in my service leaked my words!" He investigated and interrogated those present, but no one confessed. He therefore ordered the arrest and execution of all who had been standing nearby. From that time on, no one knew where the emperor went. Court matters and the dispatch of affairs were handled entirely at the Xianyang Palace.

The First Emperor visited Liangshan Palace. From the mountain he observed that the prime minister's carriages and attendants were too numerous, and he was displeased. A palace eunuch informed the prime minister, who thereafter reduced his retinue. The First Emperor flew into a rage: "Someone in my service leaked my words!" He investigated and interrogated those present, but no one confessed. He therefore ordered the arrest and execution of all who had been standing nearby. From that time on, no one knew where the emperor went. Court matters and the dispatch of affairs were handled entirely at the Xianyang Palace.

The First Emperor visited Liangshan Palace. From the mountain he observed that the prime minister's carriages and attendants were too numerous, and he was displeased. A palace eunuch informed the prime minister, who thereafter reduced his retinue. The First Emperor flew into a rage: "Someone in my service leaked my words!" He investigated and interrogated those present, but no one confessed. He therefore ordered the arrest and execution of all who had been standing nearby. From that time on, no one knew where the emperor went. Court matters and the dispatch of affairs were handled entirely at the Xianyang Palace.

Hou Sheng and Lu Sheng discussed together: "The First Emperor's character is naturally obstinate and self-righteous. He rose from among the vassals, unified the realm, and indulged his every desire, believing that no one since antiquity could match him. He entrusts everything to the legal officials, who become his favorites. Though there are over seventy scholars in the academy, they merely fill the roster and are never consulted. The prime minister and all ministers receive their assignments and rely on the emperor's decisions. His Majesty delights in using punishment and execution as instruments of terror. The world fears punishment and clings to office, daring not to offer sincere counsel. He never hears criticism and grows daily more arrogant, while his subordinates tremble and deceive him to gain his favor. Qin's law forbids the practice of any art not sanctioned by it, and if something proves ineffective, the practitioner is executed. There are over three hundred star-gazers and diviners, all capable men, but fearful of taboos and flattery, they dare not speak plainly of faults. All affairs, great and small, are decided by the emperor alone. He weighs the documents he reviews day and night, with quotas to meet; if he fails to meet them, he does not rest. He is so greedy for power that he cannot be entrusted with the quest for immortality." They accordingly fled.

Hou Sheng and Lu Sheng discussed together: "The First Emperor's character is naturally obstinate and self-righteous. He rose from among the vassals, unified the realm, and indulged his every desire, believing that no one since antiquity could match him. He entrusts everything to the legal officials, who become his favorites. Though there are over seventy scholars in the academy, they merely fill the roster and are never consulted. The prime minister and all ministers receive their assignments and rely on the emperor's decisions. His Majesty delights in using punishment and execution as instruments of terror. The world fears punishment and clings to office, daring not to offer sincere counsel. He never hears criticism and grows daily more arrogant, while his subordinates tremble and deceive him to gain his favor. Qin's law forbids the practice of any art not sanctioned by it, and if something proves ineffective, the practitioner is executed. There are over three hundred star-gazers and diviners, all capable men, but fearful of taboos and flattery, they dare not speak plainly of faults. All affairs, great and small, are decided by the emperor alone. He weighs the documents he reviews day and night, with quotas to meet; if he fails to meet them, he does not rest. He is so greedy for power that he cannot be entrusted with the quest for immortality." They accordingly fled.

Hou Sheng and Lu Sheng discussed together: "The First Emperor's character is naturally obstinate and self-righteous. He rose from among the vassals, unified the realm, and indulged his every desire, believing that no one since antiquity could match him. He entrusts everything to the legal officials, who become his favorites. Though there are over seventy scholars in the academy, they merely fill the roster and are never consulted. The prime minister and all ministers receive their assignments and rely on the emperor's decisions. His Majesty delights in using punishment and execution as instruments of terror. The world fears punishment and clings to office, daring not to offer sincere counsel. He never hears criticism and grows daily more arrogant, while his subordinates tremble and deceive him to gain his favor. Qin's law forbids the practice of any art not sanctioned by it, and if something proves ineffective, the practitioner is executed. There are over three hundred star-gazers and diviners, all capable men, but fearful of taboos and flattery, they dare not speak plainly of faults. All affairs, great and small, are decided by the emperor alone. He weighs the documents he reviews day and night, with quotas to meet; if he fails to meet them, he does not rest. He is so greedy for power that he cannot be entrusted with the quest for immortality." They accordingly fled.

When the First Emperor heard of their escape, he flew into a rage: "Previously I collected the books of the realm and destroyed those of no use. I summoned many literary scholars and practitioners of magical arts, desiring to revive peaceful governance. The practitioners sought to refine cinnabar for rare elixirs. Now Han Zhong has left without reporting back. The Xu Fu expedition has spent countless thousands, yet no medicine has been obtained, and I hear only of their endless schemes for profit. Lu Sheng and the others—I honored and rewarded them handsomely, yet they now slander me, adding to my reputational damage. Those literary scholars residing in Xianyang—I sent officials to investigate them. Some are spreading false doctrines to deceive the common people."

When the First Emperor heard of their escape, he flew into a rage: "Previously I collected the books of the realm and destroyed those of no use. I summoned many literary scholars and practitioners of magical arts, desiring to revive peaceful governance. The practitioners sought to refine cinnabar for rare elixirs. Now Han Zhong has left without reporting back. The Xu Fu expedition has spent countless thousands, yet no medicine has been obtained, and I hear only of their endless schemes for profit. Lu Sheng and the others—I honored and rewarded them handsomely, yet they now slander me, adding to my reputational damage. Those literary scholars residing in Xianyang—I sent officials to investigate them. Some are spreading false doctrines to deceive the common people."

He therefore ordered the imperial prosecutors to interrogate all the scholars. They informed on one another, implicating their colleagues, and the emperor personally designated over four hundred sixty who had violated the prohibitions. All were buried alive in Xianyang, and the empire was informed to serve as a warning. He also increased the number of convicts and exiles sent to the frontier.

He therefore ordered the imperial prosecutors to interrogate all the scholars. They informed on one another, implicating their colleagues, and the emperor personally designated over four hundred sixty who had violated the prohibitions. All were buried alive in Xianyang, and the empire was informed to serve as a warning. He also increased the number of convicts and exiles sent to the frontier.

He therefore ordered the imperial prosecutors to interrogate all the scholars. They informed on one another, implicating their colleagues, and the emperor personally designated over four hundred sixty who had violated the prohibitions. All were buried alive in Xianyang, and the empire was informed to serve as a warning. He also increased the number of convicts and exiles sent to the frontier.

The First Emperor's eldest son, Fusu, remonstrated, saying: 'The empire has just been settled; the black-headed people in distant regions have not yet submitted. The scholars all recite and model themselves on Confucius, yet now Your Majesty turns to heavy punishments to discipline them. I fear the empire will know no peace. I entreat Your Majesty to take heed.' The First Emperor grew angry and dispatched Fusu north to supervise Meng Tian at Shangjun. In the thirty-sixth year, Mars lodged in the constellation Heart. A star fell in Dongjun, and upon reaching the ground it became a stone. Some of the black-headed people carved upon the stone the words: 'The First Emperor shall die and his land be divided.'

The emperor's eldest son, Fusu, remonstrated: "The realm has only just been unified, and the common people in distant regions are not yet settled. All these scholars recite the teachings of Confucius. If Your Majesty now punishes them all severely with the law, I fear the realm will not know peace. Please consider this carefully." The enraged emperor sent Fusu northward to serve as inspector over General Meng Tian at Shangjun.

In the thirty-sixth year, Mars kept watch over the Heart constellation. A meteor fell in the eastern prefecture and became a stone when it struck the earth. The common people inscribed on the stone: "When the First Emperor dies, the land will be divided." When the emperor heard of this, he sent prosecutors to investigate and interrogate, but no one confessed. He executed all who lived near the stone and ordered it burned.

The emperor was displeased by these omens. He commissioned scholars to compose poems about immortal beings and, wherever he traveled, ordered the musicians to compose songs and set them to music. In autumn, an envoy traveling from east of the passes passed through Huayin on the Pingshu road at night. A man holding a jade disc blocked the envoy's path, saying: "Give this to the Hao Chi lord." He then said: "This year the Ancestral Dragon will die." The envoy asked the reason, but the man vanished suddenly, leaving the disc behind. The envoy presented the disc to the court with his full report. The emperor was silent for a long while, then said: "Mountain spirits know only events less than a year ahead." He reasoned aloud: "The Ancestral Dragon is the predecessor of mankind." He had the jade examined in the imperial workshop—it turned out to be the disc the emperor had cast into the Yangtze when crossing it in his twenty-eighth year.

The emperor was displeased by these omens. He commissioned scholars to compose poems about immortal beings and, wherever he traveled, ordered the musicians to compose songs and set them to music. In autumn, an envoy traveling from east of the passes passed through Huayin on the Pingshu road at night. A man holding a jade disc blocked the envoy's path, saying: "Give this to the Hao Chi lord." He then said: "This year the Ancestral Dragon will die." The envoy asked the reason, but the man vanished suddenly, leaving the disc behind. The envoy presented the disc to the court with his full report. The emperor was silent for a long while, then said: "Mountain spirits know only events less than a year ahead." He reasoned aloud: "The Ancestral Dragon is the predecessor of mankind." He had the jade examined in the imperial workshop—it turned out to be the disc the emperor had cast into the Yangtze when crossing it in his twenty-eighth year.

The emperor then divined his fortune, and the hexagram indicated favorable timing for travel and relocation. He moved thirty thousand families to Yubei and Yuzhong. Their ranks were increased by one level.

In the thirty-seventh year, in the tenth month, on the day guichou, the First Emperor traveled abroad. The left chancellor Li SiLi SiQin's Great ChancellorThe man who designed the imperial system that lasted two thousand years — and was executed by being cut in half with his family.View profile → accompanied him; the right chancellor Qu Ji remained to guard the capital. His youngest son, Huhai, out of affection and admiration, requested to accompany him, and the emperor granted permission. In the eleventh month, they traveled to Yunmeng and offered sacrifices to Emperor Shun at Mount Jiuyi. They sailed down the Yangtze, observed the Jike crossing, and passed through Haizhu. Passing Danyang, they arrived at Qiantang. When they reached the Zhejiang River, the waters ran dangerously high, so they turned west and crossed some one hundred twenty li upstream through a narrow passage. They ascended Mount Kuaiji, sacrificed to Emperor Yu, gazed upon the Southern Sea, and erected a stone to record and celebrate Qin's virtue.

In the thirty-seventh year, in the tenth month, on the day guichou, the First Emperor traveled abroad. The left chancellor Li SiLi SiQin's Great ChancellorThe man who designed the imperial system that lasted two thousand years — and was executed by being cut in half with his family.View profile → accompanied him; the right chancellor Qu Ji remained to guard the capital. His youngest son, Huhai, out of affection and admiration, requested to accompany him, and the emperor granted permission. In the eleventh month, they traveled to Yunmeng and offered sacrifices to Emperor Shun at Mount Jiuyi. They sailed down the Yangtze, observed the Jike crossing, and passed through Haizhu. Passing Danyang, they arrived at Qiantang. When they reached the Zhejiang River, the waters ran dangerously high, so they turned west and crossed some one hundred twenty li upstream through a narrow passage. They ascended Mount Kuaiji, sacrificed to Emperor Yu, gazed upon the Southern Sea, and erected a stone to record and celebrate Qin's virtue.

The inscription read: The emperor's glorious achievements have unified the realm; his virtue and kindness extend far. In the thirty-seventh year, he personally toured the realm and observed the distant territories. He ascended Mount Kuaiji to inspect local customs; the common people observed solemn rites. The ministers recited his accomplishments, tracing affairs to their origins, honoring his wisdom and brilliance. When the sage Qin ruler took command of the state, he first established laws and proclamations, clearly articulating ancient precedents. He determined the duties of offices to establish lasting institutions. The six kings, however, multiplied their transgressions, became greedy and violent, and relied on their strength to act arrogantly. They tyrannized without restraint, exploited their power, and frequently mobilized troops. Secretly sending envoys abroad, they formed alliances and acted contrary to right. Deceitful in counsel at home, they invaded Qin's borders abroad, thereby bringing calamity upon themselves. Through righteous might, we chastised them, extinguished their tyranny, and destroyed the traitors. The emperor's sagely virtue spreads through all beneath heaven, his grace extends without limit. The emperor unified the realm, heard all affairs, and the distant and near were equally at peace. He governed all things wisely, tested facts and circumstances, and recorded each by name. The noble and base were equally heard, the worthy and unworthy evaluated before him, nothing concealed. He corrected errors and proclaimed virtue; those widowed who remarried were condemned as faithless to the dead. Walls separated men and women, impurity and lewdness were forbidden, husbands and wives maintained purity and sincerity. A man who seduces another's wife should be killed without fault; men should observe righteous conduct. A wife who abandons her marriage should lose her children, all should be transformed into integrity and clarity. Great peace transformed customs; under heaven the wholesome teachings spread. All followed proper measure and order, living in harmony and industry, none disobeyed the decrees. The common people cultivated purity, delighted in shared standards, and rejoiced in preserved tranquility. Later generations should revere the law, govern without end, and keep carriages and vessels steady. The ministers recite these great deeds and request this stone be inscribed, that its splendid record may shine forever.

The inscription read: The emperor's glorious achievements have unified the realm; his virtue and kindness extend far. In the thirty-seventh year, he personally toured the realm and observed the distant territories. He ascended Mount Kuaiji to inspect local customs; the common people observed solemn rites. The ministers recited his accomplishments, tracing affairs to their origins, honoring his wisdom and brilliance. When the sage Qin ruler took command of the state, he first established laws and proclamations, clearly articulating ancient precedents. He determined the duties of offices to establish lasting institutions. The six kings, however, multiplied their transgressions, became greedy and violent, and relied on their strength to act arrogantly. They tyrannized without restraint, exploited their power, and frequently mobilized troops. Secretly sending envoys abroad, they formed alliances and acted contrary to right. Deceitful in counsel at home, they invaded Qin's borders abroad, thereby bringing calamity upon themselves. Through righteous might, we chastised them, extinguished their tyranny, and destroyed the traitors. The emperor's sagely virtue spreads through all beneath heaven, his grace extends without limit. The emperor unified the realm, heard all affairs, and the distant and near were equally at peace. He governed all things wisely, tested facts and circumstances, and recorded each by name. The noble and base were equally heard, the worthy and unworthy evaluated before him, nothing concealed. He corrected errors and proclaimed virtue; those widowed who remarried were condemned as faithless to the dead. Walls separated men and women, impurity and lewdness were forbidden, husbands and wives maintained purity and sincerity. A man who seduces another's wife should be killed without fault; men should observe righteous conduct. A wife who abandons her marriage should lose her children, all should be transformed into integrity and clarity. Great peace transformed customs; under heaven the wholesome teachings spread. All followed proper measure and order, living in harmony and industry, none disobeyed the decrees. The common people cultivated purity, delighted in shared standards, and rejoiced in preserved tranquility. Later generations should revere the law, govern without end, and keep carriages and vessels steady. The ministers recite these great deeds and request this stone be inscribed, that its splendid record may shine forever.

On the return journey, passing through Wu, the emperor crossed at Jiangcheng. He followed the sea route north to Langya. The alchemist Xu Fu and others sailed the seas seeking divine medicines. After several years without success, and having spent enormous sums, they feared punishment. They therefore claimed: "The elixir of immortality may indeed be obtained, but it is constantly troubled by great sharks, which is why we cannot reach it. We request permission to bring skilled archers with us; when we encounter the sharks, we will shoot them with linked crossbows."

The emperor dreamed of battling a sea deity, which appeared in human form. He consulted the dream interpreter, who said: "Water deities cannot be seen, but their signs are the great fish and serpent dragons. Now that Your Majesty has prayed reverently, this evil spirit has appeared. Remove it, and the benevolent spirits may be summoned." He therefore ordered those sailing the seas to bring equipment for catching great fish and personally waited with linked crossbows to shoot any great fish that appeared. From Langya north to Yingcheng Mountain, they saw nothing. At Zhifu, they sighted a great fish and killed it. They then sailed west along the coast. At Pingyuan Ford, the emperor fell ill. He detested hearing about death, and the ministers dared not discuss mortality. His illness worsened, and he composed an edict addressed to his son Fusu: "Join the funeral at Xianyang for burial." The letter was sealed and placed with the keeper of the imperial seals, Zhao Gao, who administered the seals, but it was not yet sent.

The funeral procession proceeded via the well passages to Jiuyuan. The summer heat having caused the cooled carriage to smell, the officials were ordered to load a dan of salted fish to mask the odor. The procession returned via the direct road to Xianyang, where the death was announced. Prince Huhai succeeded to the throne as the Second Emperor.

The funeral procession proceeded via the well passages to Jiuyuan. The summer heat having caused the cooled carriage to smell, the officials were ordered to load a dan of salted fish to mask the odor. The procession returned via the direct road to Xianyang, where the death was announced. Prince Huhai succeeded to the throne as the Second Emperor.

The funeral procession proceeded via the well passages to Jiuyuan. The summer heat having caused the cooled carriage to smell, the officials were ordered to load a dan of salted fish to mask the odor. The procession returned via the direct road to Xianyang, where the death was announced. Prince Huhai succeeded to the throne as the Second Emperor.

In the ninth month, the First Emperor was buried at Lishan. From the beginning of his reign, he had ordered the excavation and construction of the Lishan tomb. After unifying the realm, over seven hundred thousand convicts from across the empire were sent there. They cut through three layers of underground water and poured copper to form the outer coffin. Palaces, pavilions, officials, rare treasures, and precious objects filled the tomb. Artisans constructed mechanical crossbows; any intruder who pierced too deeply would be shot. Rivers of mercury were made to flow through the tomb, representing the hundred rivers, oceans, and great seas, powered by machinery. The ceiling displayed the heavens, the floor the geography of the earth. Lamps burned with fish oil, designed to burn for a very long time without extinguishing.

In the ninth month, the First Emperor was buried at Lishan. From the beginning of his reign, he had ordered the excavation and construction of the Lishan tomb. After unifying the realm, over seven hundred thousand convicts from across the empire were sent there. They cut through three layers of underground water and poured copper to form the outer coffin. Palaces, pavilions, officials, rare treasures, and precious objects filled the tomb. Artisans constructed mechanical crossbows; any intruder who pierced too deeply would be shot. Rivers of mercury were made to flow through the tomb, representing the hundred rivers, oceans, and great seas, powered by machinery. The ceiling displayed the heavens, the floor the geography of the earth. Lamps burned with fish oil, designed to burn for a very long time without extinguishing.

The Second Emperor declared: "Those consorts of the late emperor who bore no sons should not remain outside." They were all ordered to accompany him in death, and many perished. After the burial was complete, someone remarked that the artisans who constructed the mechanical devices knew the locations of the treasures, and once these were entombed, they would surely speak of it. When the funeral preparations were finished and the treasures were entombed, the middle passage was sealed, then the outer passage, trapping all the artisans and workers inside; none emerged. The mound was planted with trees and grass to resemble a mountain.

The Second Emperor, twenty-one years of age, ascended the throne. Zhao Gao was appointed Chamberlain of the Gentlemen of the Palace and came to exercise power. The Second Emperor issued an edict increasing the sacrifices and offerings to the First Emperor's ancestral temple and the hundred mountain and river deities. He ordered the ministers to discuss honoring the First Emperor's temple. The ministers all kowtowed and said: "In antiquity, emperors maintained seven ancestral temples, feudal lords five, and great officials three; even through ten thousand generations they would not be destroyed. Now the First Emperor is the supreme temple, and all within the four seas offers tribute and performs service. The sacrifices are complete and unmatched. The temples of former kings are either in Xianyang or the western shrine. The emperor alone should offer the libations at the First Emperor's temple. From the Duke of Qin downward, the others will be destroyed. Altogether there will be seven ancestral temples." The ministers advanced and retreated according to ritual, honoring the First Emperor's temple as the ancestral temple of all emperors. The Second Emperor again called himself "I."

The Second Emperor, twenty-one years of age, ascended the throne. Zhao Gao was appointed Chamberlain of the Gentlemen of the Palace and came to exercise power. The Second Emperor issued an edict increasing the sacrifices and offerings to the First Emperor's ancestral temple and the hundred mountain and river deities. He ordered the ministers to discuss honoring the First Emperor's temple. The ministers all kowtowed and said: "In antiquity, emperors maintained seven ancestral temples, feudal lords five, and great officials three; even through ten thousand generations they would not be destroyed. Now the First Emperor is the supreme temple, and all within the four seas offers tribute and performs service. The sacrifices are complete and unmatched. The temples of former kings are either in Xianyang or the western shrine. The emperor alone should offer the libations at the First Emperor's temple. From the Duke of Qin downward, the others will be destroyed. Altogether there will be seven ancestral temples." The ministers advanced and retreated according to ritual, honoring the First Emperor's temple as the ancestral temple of all emperors. The Second Emperor again called himself "I."

In the first year of the Second Emperor's reign, he was twenty-one years old. Zhao Gao was appointed Chamberlain of the Gentlemen of the Palace and came to exercise power. The Second Emperor issued an edict increasing the sacrifices and offerings to the First Emperor's ancestral temple and the hundred mountain and river deities. He ordered the ministers to discuss honoring the First Emperor's temple. The ministers all kowtowed and said: "In antiquity, emperors maintained seven ancestral temples, feudal lords five, and great officials three; even through ten thousand generations they would not be destroyed. Now the First Emperor is the supreme temple, and all within the four seas offers tribute and performs service. The sacrifices are complete and unmatched. The temples of former kings are either in Xianyang or the western shrine. The emperor alone should offer the libations at the First Emperor's temple. From the Duke of Qin downward, the others will be destroyed. Altogether there will be seven ancestral temples." The ministers advanced and retreated according to ritual, honoring the First Emperor's temple as the ancestral temple of all emperors. The Second Emperor again called himself "I."

In the first year of the Second Emperor's reign, he was twenty-one years old. Zhao Gao was appointed Chamberlain of the Gentlemen of the Palace and came to exercise power. The Second Emperor issued an edict increasing the sacrifices and offerings to the First Emperor's ancestral temple and the hundred mountain and river deities. He ordered the ministers to discuss honoring the First Emperor's temple. The ministers all kowtowed and said: "In antiquity, emperors maintained seven ancestral temples, feudal lords five, and great officials three; even through ten thousand generations they would not be destroyed. Now the First Emperor is the supreme temple, and all within the four seas offers tribute and performs service. The sacrifices are complete and unmatched. The temples of former kings are either in Xianyang or the western shrine. The emperor alone should offer the libations at the First Emperor's temple. From the Duke of Qin downward, the others will be destroyed. Altogether there will be seven ancestral temples." The ministers advanced and retreated according to ritual, honoring the First Emperor's temple as the ancestral temple of all emperors. The Second Emperor again called himself "I."

In the first year of the Second Emperor's reign, he was twenty-one years old. Zhao Gao was appointed Chamberlain of the Gentlemen of the Palace and came to exercise power. The Second Emperor issued an edict increasing the sacrifices and offerings to the First Emperor's ancestral temple and the hundred mountain and river deities. He ordered the ministers to discuss honoring the First Emperor's temple. The ministers all kowtowed and said: "In antiquity, emperors maintained seven ancestral temples, feudal lords five, and great officials three; even through ten thousand generations they would not be destroyed. Now the First Emperor is the supreme temple, and all within the four seas offers tribute and performs service. The sacrifices are complete and unmatched. The temples of former kings are either in Xianyang or the western shrine. The emperor alone should offer the libations at the First Emperor's temple. From the Duke of Qin downward, the others will be destroyed. Altogether there will be seven ancestral temples." The ministers advanced and retreated according to ritual, honoring the First Emperor's temple as the ancestral temple of all emperors. The Second Emperor again called himself "I."

In his second year, the Second Emperor traveled eastward to inspect the commanderies and counties, accompanied by Li SiLi SiQin's Great ChancellorThe man who designed the imperial system that lasted two thousand years — and was executed by being cut in half with his family.View profile →. He reached Jieshi, followed the coast south to Mount Kuaiji, and everywhere had the First Emperor's memorial stones reinscribed with the names of the ministers and officials in attendance, to illuminate the former emperor's achievements and virtue. The inscription stated: "These stone inscriptions are all the work of the First Emperor. Now His Majesty has assumed the imperial title, yet the stone inscriptions do not acknowledge the First Emperor, and those in later ages who follow as heirs will not be deemed to have matched these achievements and virtue." The ministers Li SiLi SiQin's Great ChancellorThe man who designed the imperial system that lasted two thousand years — and was executed by being cut in half with his family.View profile →, Qu Ji, and Minister of Justice Meng De respectfully stated: "We beg leave to inscribe the imperial decree on the stone, thereby clarifying this matter. We humbly request permission to do so." The imperial response was: "Approved."

In his second year, the Second Emperor traveled eastward to inspect the commanderies and counties, accompanied by Li SiLi SiQin's Great ChancellorThe man who designed the imperial system that lasted two thousand years — and was executed by being cut in half with his family.View profile →. He reached Jieshi, followed the coast south to Mount Kuaiji, and everywhere had the First Emperor's memorial stones reinscribed with the names of the ministers and officials in attendance, to illuminate the former emperor's achievements and virtue. The inscription stated: "These stone inscriptions are all the work of the First Emperor. Now His Majesty has assumed the imperial title, yet the stone inscriptions do not acknowledge the First Emperor, and those in later ages who follow as heirs will not be deemed to have matched these achievements and virtue." The ministers Li SiLi SiQin's Great ChancellorThe man who designed the imperial system that lasted two thousand years — and was executed by being cut in half with his family.View profile →, Qu Ji, and Minister of Justice Meng De respectfully stated: "We beg leave to inscribe the imperial decree on the stone, thereby clarifying this matter. We humbly request permission to do so." The imperial response was: "Approved."

Afterwards, all the ministers feared Zhao Gao. Previously, Zhao Gao had repeatedly said that the bandits east of the passes could accomplish nothing. But when Xiang YuXiang YuHere's the translation of "The Warrior Who Almost Ruled the World" into English: **The Warrior Who Almost Ruled the World**The most feared warrior in Chinese history — brilliant in battle, catastrophic in politics — whose stubborn nobility cost him an empire.View profile → captured the Qin general Wang Li and others below Julu and advanced, and Zhang Han and the other armies repeatedly retreated, submitting memorials requesting reinforcements, the rulers of Yan, Zhao, Qi, Chu, Han, and Wei all proclaimed themselves kings. East of the Hangu Pass, most of the people betrayed the Qin officials to join the feudal lords, and the lords all led their forces westward. The Governor of Pei, at the head of several tens of thousands of men, had already massacred Wu Pass and sent someone privately to Zhao Gao. Zhao Gao, fearing that the Second Emperor would be angry and punish him, excused himself on grounds of illness and did not appear at court.

The Second Emperor dreamed that a white tiger bit to death the horse on the left of his team; he killed the tiger but was displeased and perplexed, so he consulted a dream diviner. The diviner said: 'The Jing River is causing this mischief.' The Second Emperor then performed purification rites at Wangyi Palace, intending to sacrifice to the Jing River, and sank four white horses as offerings. He sent an envoy to reproach Zhao Gao about the rebel activities. Zhao Gao became afraid and secretly plotted with his son-in-law, Yan Le, the magistrate of Xianyang, and his younger brother Zhao Cheng, saying: 'The Emperor does not heed remonstrance. Now the situation is critical, and he wants to shift the calamity onto our family. I wish to remove the Emperor and replace him with Prince Ying.'

Ziying was benevolent and frugal, and the people all praised his words. He made the Prefect of the Palace Gentlemen an inside accomplice, pretending that there were great robbers in the palace, and ordered Le to summon officials and dispatch troops, then took Le's mother hostage and placed her in a high tower as security. He sent Yan Le with over a thousand officers and soldiers to the gate of Wangyi Palace. They bound the Guard Commander and the Deputy Archers, demanding: 'Robbers have entered here, why did you not stop them?' The Guard Commander replied: 'The palace precincts are carefully guarded with troops; how could robbers dare enter the palace?' Le beheaded the Guard Commander on the spot, then led his men straight in, shooting as they went. The palace attendants and eunuchs were terrified; some fled, some resisted, and those who resisted were killed on the spot—several dozen dead. The Prefect of the Palace Gentlemen entered with Le and shot into the imperial canopy and seat. The Second Emperor flew into a rage and summoned his attendants; they were all panicked and disordered, none dared to fight. Only one eunuch stayed by his side, not daring to leave. The Second Emperor withdrew to an inner chamber and said to him: 'Why did you not warn me earlier? To think that it has come to this!' The eunuch replied: 'Your servant dared not speak, and thus managed to stay alive. Had I spoken earlier, I would have been executed long ago; how could I have survived until today?'

Yan Le stepped forward and enumerated the crimes of the Second Emperor, saying: 'You have been arrogant and reckless, slaughtering the innocent without cause. All under Heaven have turned against you. You must decide for yourself what to do.' The Second Emperor said: 'May I see the Chancellor?' Yan Le said: 'No.' The Second Emperor said: 'I wish to become king of a single commandery.' This was refused. He then said: 'I wish to be a marquis of ten thousand households.' This too was refused. He said: 'I wish to become a commoner with my wife and children, like the other princes.' Yan Le said: 'I have received orders from the Chancellor to execute you on behalf of all under Heaven. Though you speak many words, I dare not report them.' He commanded his soldiers to advance. The Second Emperor then committed suicide.

The Second Emperor said: "Excellent." He accordingly executed great ministers and princes. Because of their offenses, relatives and close attendants were arrested and investigated, and none of the junior officials or the three palace gentlemen were spared. The six princes were executed at Du. The brothers of Prince Jiang Lü and three others were imprisoned in the inner palace. When their sentence was being deliberated, these three alone did not respond to the charges. The Second Emperor sent an envoy to say to them: "You have shown no loyalty to your prince; your crimes deserve death. The officials will carry out the law."

The Second Emperor said: "Excellent." He accordingly executed great ministers and princes. Because of their offenses, relatives and close attendants were arrested and investigated, and none of the junior officials or the three palace gentlemen were spared. The six princes were executed at Du. The brothers of Prince Jiang Lü and three others were imprisoned in the inner palace. When their sentence was being deliberated, these three alone did not respond to the charges. The Second Emperor sent an envoy to say to them: "You have shown no loyalty to your prince; your crimes deserve death. The officials will carry out the law."

The Second Emperor said: "Excellent." He accordingly executed great ministers and princes. Because of their offenses, relatives and close attendants were arrested and investigated, and none of the junior officials or the three palace gentlemen were spared. The six princes were executed at Du. The brothers of Prince Jiang Lü and three others were imprisoned in the inner palace. When their sentence was being deliberated, these three alone did not respond to the charges. The Second Emperor sent an envoy to say to them: "You have shown no loyalty to your prince; your crimes deserve death. The officials will carry out the law."

Jiāng Lǚ said: "In all the rituals of the imperial court, I have never failed to follow the directions of the officials in charge. In my position at court, I have never failed in my duties. In receiving commands and answering summons, I have never lost my words. Why then am I denied the status of a minister? I wish only to hear my crime before I die." The messenger replied: "I am not permitted to share in such deliberations. I merely carry out the orders I have been given." Jiāng Lǚ then raised his head and called out to Heaven three times: "Oh Heaven! I am innocent!" He and his two brothers all wept, drew their swords, and took their own lives. The imperial clan lived in terror.

The officials who remonstrated were considered libelous, and the senior ministers, seeking only to keep their salaries, curried favor. The common people were seized with fear.

If Ziying had possessed the ability of even a mediocre ruler and had only average ministers to assist him, although the lands east of the mountains were in turmoil, the territory of Qin could have been preserved intact, and the sacrifices at the ancestral temples would not have been cut off. The land of Qin is shielded by mountains and girded by rivers, a state secure on all four sides. From Duke Mu down to the King of Qin, over twenty rulers constantly stood supreme among the feudal lords. Were all of them worthy generation after generation? It was the strategic terrain that placed them in this position. Moreover, the realm had once united in heart and joined forces to attack Qin.

In that age, worthy and wise men stood side by side, fine generals led their armies, and worthy ministers devised their strategies. Yet they were blocked by dangerous terrain and could not advance. Qin then lured them into battle by opening the passes for them, but the army of a million fled in defeat and was thus destroyed. Was it a lack of courage, strength, or wisdom? It was because the terrain was unfavorable and the circumstances were not advantageous. Qin annexed small towns into large cities, guarded strategic passes and stationed troops there, built high ramparts and refused to do battle, closed the passes and held the commanding heights, defending them with halberds.

The feudal lords rose from commoners, united by profit and lacking the virtuous conduct of an uncrowned king. Their ties were not yet close, their men not yet loyal; under the pretext of destroying Qin, they actually sought their own gain. Seeing that Qin's strategic position was difficult to assault, they would surely withdraw their troops. One should secure the land and give the people rest, waiting for them to grow weary, then assist the weak and support the exhausted, and thereby command the lords of the great states; there would be no worry about not achieving one's aim in the world. To be exalted as Son of Heaven and possess all under heaven, yet be taken captive—this was because the rescue from ruin was mishandled. The King of Qin, self-satisfied and asking for no advice, persisted in his errors without change. The Second Emperor inherited this, continued without reform, and with cruelty compounded the calamity. Zi Ying stood isolated without kin, in danger and weakness with no one to assist him. The three rulers were deluded and never awakened until the end—was not the fall fitting?

He conscripted fifty thousand picked warriors to garrison Xiányáng, and ordered them to train with bows, dogs, and horses, and to hunt game. The number of mouths to feed was great, and the supplies proved insufficient, so he ordered the counties and commanderies to transport beans, grain, and fodder—each unit providing its own provisions, and no food from within three hundred lǐ of Xiányáng was to be consumed. The legal penalties grew ever more severe.

He conscripted fifty thousand picked warriors to garrison Xiányáng, and ordered them to train with bows, dogs, and horses, and to hunt game. The number of mouths to feed was great, and the supplies proved insufficient, so he ordered the counties and commanderies to transport beans, grain, and fodder—each unit providing its own provisions, and no food from within three hundred lǐ of Xiányáng was to be consumed. The legal penalties grew ever more severe.

He conscripted fifty thousand picked warriors to garrison Xiányáng, and ordered them to train with bows, dogs, and horses, and to hunt game. The number of mouths to feed was great, and the supplies proved insufficient, so he ordered the counties and commanderies to transport beans, grain, and fodder—each unit providing its own provisions, and no food from within three hundred lǐ of Xiányáng was to be consumed. The legal penalties grew ever more severe.

The Second Emperor sent additional forces, appointing the Palace Counselor Sīmǎ Xìn and Dǒng Yì as subordinates to Zhāng Hán in attacking the bandits. They killed Chén Shèng at Chéngfǔ, defeated Xiàng Liáng at Dìngtáo, and annihilated Wèi Jiù at Línjì. When the famous rebel generals in Chǔ territory had been killed, Zhāng Hán crossed the Yellow River northward to attack the King of Zhào, Xiè, and others at Jùlù.

"What makes one worthy of possessing the realm is to have free rein to satisfy every desire, with the law luminously clear below so that none dares to act wrongly—thus controlling the seas within. The rulers of Yú and Xià may have been revered as Sons of Heaven, but they personally endured the harshest poverty and suffered with their people—how then could they be considered to have upheld the law?

In the winter of the third year, Zhāng Hán led his troops to encircle Jùlù, and the Supreme General of Chǔ, Xiàng Yǔ, led the Chǔ soldiers to relieve Jùlù. That winter, Zhao Gao became Chancellor, and finally investigated and executed Lǐ Sī. In summer, Zhāng Hán and the others suffered repeated defeats. The Second Emperor sent someone to rebuke Hán, who grew frightened and sent the Palace Counselor Xìn to petition at court. Zhao Gao refused to see him and would not trust him. Xìn, fearing for his life, fled. Zhao Gao sent men to pursue but they failed to catch him. Xìn reported to Hán: "Zhao Gao holds power at court. A general who succeeds will be executed; one who fails will also be executed. The situation is hopeless."

Yán Lè reported back to Zhao Gao, who then summoned all the ministers and sons of the nobility and informed them of the execution of the Second Emperor. He said: "Qin was originally an independent kingdom. When the First Emperor unified the realm, he took the title of Emperor. Now the six kingdoms have restored themselves; Qin's territory has become small. To claim the empty title of Emperor would be impossible. It would be fitting to restore the title of King, as before. This would be proper." He installed the Second Emperor's nephew, the Lord Gongzi Yīng, as King of Qin.

Five years later, the realm was pacified under Hàn.

He fathered King Xiaowen. King Xiaowen ruled for one year and was buried at Shou Mausoleum. He fathered King Zhuangxiang. King Zhuangxiang ruled for three years and was buried at Zhiyang. He fathered the First Emperor. Lü Buwei served as chancellor. In the seventh year of Duke Xian's reign, markets were first established. In the tenth year, households were registered in groups of five. In the sixteenth year of Duke Xiao's reign, peach and plum trees blossomed in winter. King Huiwen was born nineteen years before he ascended the throne. In the second year of his reign, coins were first minted. There was a newborn baby who spoke, saying 'Qin shall be king.' King Daowu was born nineteen years before he ascended the throne. In the third year of his reign, the Wei River ran red for three days.

As the saying goes: "He who forgets the past serves as a lesson for the future." Therefore the gentleman who governs a state examines antiquity, tests it against the present, consults human affairs, understands the principles of rise and fall, weighs what is appropriate to power and authority, advances and retreats in proper order, and times changes aright—so that though days may stretch long, the state remains at peace.

Duke Wen resided at Western Chui Palace and died after fifty years, buried at Western Chui. He produced Duke Jing, who died without enjoying the state. Duke Jing produced Duke Xian, who ruled for twelve years from the western new city. He died and was buried at Ya. He produced Duke Wu and Duke De and Duke Chu Zi.

Duke De ruled for two years, residing at the great Zheng Palace in Yong. He produced Duke Xuan, Duke Cheng, and Duke Mu. He was buried at Yang. Initially he fasted to ward off pestilence.

Duke Cheng ruled for four years, residing in the Yong palace. He was buried at Yang. Qi attacked the Rong of Shanhu and Guzhu.

Duke Cheng ruled for four years, residing in the Yong palace. He was buried at Yang. Qi attacked the Rong of Shanhu and Guzhu.

Duke Cheng ruled for four years, residing in the Yong palace. He was buried at Yang. Qi attacked the Rong of Shanhu and Guzhu.

The Epang Palace soared in cloud-like construction; the golden foreigners stood in orderly ranks. To the south he travelled, engraving merit on stone; to the east he gazed upon bridges floating over the waters.

Duke Mu ruled for thirty-nine years. The Son of Heaven recognized his hegemony. He was buried at Yong. Duke Mu studied with the inscribed figures. He produced Duke Kang.

Duke Mu ruled for thirty-nine years. The Son of Heaven recognized his hegemony. He was buried at Yong. Duke Mu studied with the inscribed figures. He produced Duke Kang.