楚世家 — Shiji

The ancestors of Chu traced their lineage back to Emperor Zhuanxu Gaoyang. Gaoyang was the grandson of the Yellow Emperor and the son of Changyi. Gaoyang begot Cheng, Cheng begot Juanzhang, and Juanzhang begot Chongli. Chongli served Emperor Ku Gaoxin as Minister of Fire, achieving great merit by bringing radiance and unity to the realm. The emperor bestowed upon him the title Zhurong. When the Gong Gong clan rose in rebellion, Emperor Ku dispatched Chongli to suppress them, but he failed to exterminate them completely. The emperor thereupon executed Chongli on the day of Gengyin, and appointed his younger brother Wu Hui to succeed Chongli as Minister of Fire, restoring the title Zhurong. Wu Hui begot Lu Zhong. Lu Zhong had six sons, all born through difficult deliveries. The eldest was Kunwu; the second was Shenhu; the third was Pengzu; the fourth was Huairen; the fifth was Cao Xing; and the youngest was Ji Lian, whose surname was Mi, and who became the progenitor of Chu. The clan of Kunwu served as marquises during the Xia dynasty, but was destroyed by Tang when Jie fell. The clan of Pengzu likewise held the rank of marquis during the Shang dynasty, until the clan was annihilated during the Shang's final years. Ji Lian begot Fu Ju, and Fu Ju begot Xue Xiong. In later generations the family declined and scattered, some remaining in the Chinese heartland and others among the barbarian peoples, and their lineage could no longer be traced. During the reign of King Wen of Zhou, a descendant named Yu Xiong served the king. Yu Xiong's son served King Wen but died young. His son was Xiong Li; Xiong Li begot Xiong Kuang; Xiong Kuang begot Xiong Yi. Xiong Yi lived during the reign of King Cheng of Zhou. The king, seeking to honor the descendants of those who had served the literary and martial kings, enfeoffed Xiong Yi with the territories of the southern barbarians, granting him the rank of viscount and the surname Mi. Xiong Yi took up residence at Danyang. This Xiong Yi, Lord of Chu, together with Bo Qin of Lu, Kang Shu Zi Mu of Wei, Xie's son of Jin, and Lü Ji's son of Qi, all served King Cheng. Xiong Yi begot Xiong Ai; Xiong Ai begot Xiong Zhi; Xiong Zhi begot Xiong Sheng. Xiong Sheng was succeeded by his younger brother Xiong Yang. Xiong Yang begot Xiong Qu. Xiong Qu had three sons. During the reign of King Yi of Zhou, the royal house had grown weak; the vassal lords either ceased their court visits or attacked one another. Xiong Qu had won the affection of the people along the Yangtze and Han rivers, so he raised troops and attacked Yong, Yang Yue, as far as E. Xiong Qu declared: "I am a barbarian; I do not use the titles and honorifics of China." He thereupon installed his eldest son, Kang, as King of Gotan; his middle son, Hong, as King of E; and his youngest son, Zhi Ci, as King of Yuezhang—all in the barbarian territories along the river. When King Li came to power, he was brutal and oppressive. Fearing that he would attack Chu, Xiong Qu renounced his royal titles. He was succeeded by his son Xiong Dan Kang, who died young. Upon Xiong Qu's death, his son Xiong Zhi Hong succeeded him. When Zhi Hong died, his younger brother killed him and took the throne, becoming Xiong Yan. Xiong Yan begot Xiong Yong. In Xiong Yong's sixth year, the Zhou people rose in rebellion and attacked King Li, who fled to Zhi. In Xiong Yong's tenth year, he died and was succeeded by his brother Xiong Yan. Xiong Yan ruled for ten years and died, leaving four sons: the eldest Bo Shuang, the middle son Zhong Xue, the third son Shu Kan, and the youngest Ji Xun. Upon Xiong Yan's death, his eldest son Bo Shuang succeeded him as King Xiong Shuang. In Xiong Shuang's first year, King Xuan of Zhou had newly ascended the throne. In his sixth year, Xiong Shuang died. His three younger brothers fought over the succession. Zhong Xue died; Shu Kan fled into exile in Pu; and the youngest brother Ji Xun succeeded the throne as King Xiong Xun. In Ji Xun's sixteenth year, Duke Huan of Zheng received his enfeoffment at Zheng. In his twenty-second year, Xiong Xun died. His son Xiong E succeeded him. Xiong E ruled for nine years and died. His son Xiong Yi took the throne as Ruo'ao. In Ruo'ao's twentieth year, King You of Zhou was killed by the Quan Rong, and the Zhou court moved eastward. At this time, Duke Xiang of Qin was first ennobled as a feudal lord. In his twenty-seventh year, Ruo'ao died. His son Xiong Kan succeeded him as Xiao'ao. Xiao'ao ruled for six years and died. His son Xiong Xun succeeded him as Fenmao. Fenmao's thirteenth year saw the beginning of turmoil in Jin, owing to the rise of Quwo. Fenmao died in his seventeenth year. Fenmao's younger brother Xiong Tong murdered Fenmao's son and seized the throne, becoming King Wu of Chu. In King Wu's seventeenth year, Qu Bo of Quwo murdered Duke Xiao of Jin within his own state. In his nineteenth year, the Duke of Zheng's brother Duan created a rebellion. In his twenty-first year, Zheng encroached upon the royal domain. In his twenty-third year, Wei assassinated its lord, Duke Huan. In his twenty-ninth year, Lu assassinated its lord, Duke Yin. In his thirty-first year, the Grand Minister Hua Du of Song assassinated its lord, Duke Shang. In his thirty-fifth year, Chu attacked Sui. Sui replied: "We are guiltless." Chu responded: "We are barbarians. Now all the lords have broken faith and attack or slaughter one another. We have battered armor and wish to observe the government of the Central Kingdom. We ask that the royal house honor our title." The people of Sui pleaded Chu's case with the Zhou court, requesting that Chu be granted royal status. The royal house refused. The envoys returned and reported this to Chu. In his thirty-seventh year, King Wu of Chu flew into a rage, saying: "Our ancestor Yu Xiong served as a teacher to King Wen. He died young. King Cheng ennobled our former lord, granting him the lands of a viscount in Chu, and the barbarians all submitted. Yet the king did not elevate our rank. We shall honor ourselves." He thereupon proclaimed himself King Wu, concluded a pact with Sui, and departed. Thus Chu began to open and possess the Pu territories. In his fifty-first year, Zhou sent envoys to the Lord of Sui, repeatedly urging that Chu be established as king. Chu, furious that Sui had turned against him, attacked Sui. King Wu died while his army was encamped, and the campaign was abandoned. His son King Wen of Chu, Xiong Zi, succeeded him. He first established the capital at Ying. In King Wen's second year, he attacked Shen while passing through Deng. The people of Deng said, "The King of Chu is easy to capture," but the Lord of Deng refused their advice. In his sixth year, he attacked Cai, captured Lord Ai of Cai, and took him captive, though he later released him. Chu had grown strong and bullied the smaller states along the Yangtze and Han rivers, all of which feared it. In his eleventh year, Duke Huan of Qi began his hegemony, and Chu likewise first rose to greatness. In his twelfth year, he attacked and destroyed Deng. In his thirteenth year, he died. His son Xiong Jian succeeded him as King Zhuang Ao. King Zhuang Ao, in his fifth year, sought to kill his younger brother Xiong Yun. Yun fled to Sui, and together with Sui attacked and murdered Zhuang Ao, taking the throne as King Cheng. In King Cheng's first year, he had newly ascended the throne and extended virtue, rewarding the people, and renewing old friendships with the lords. He sent envoys to present tribute to the Son of Heaven, who granted him the sacrificial meat from the altar, saying: "Guard your southern barbarians and Yue from causing trouble, and do not encroach upon the Central Kingdom." Thus Chu's domain extended a thousand li. In his sixteenth year, Duke Huan of Qi invaded Chu with troops, advancing as far as Mount Xing. King Cheng dispatched his general Qu Wan to repel him. Qu Wan confronted the duke and concluded a treaty with him. The duke repeatedly demanded that Qi receive its share of Zhou's tribute, but Chu agreed to the terms, and the Qi forces withdrew. In his eighteenth year, King Cheng led a northern campaign against Xu, where the Lord of Xu bared his chest and submitted, and was released. In his twenty-second year, he attacked Huang. In his twenty-six year, he destroyed Ying. In his thirty-third year, Duke Xiang of Song wished to convene a covenant. He invited Chu. The King of Chu flew into a rage: "He invites me—I shall go and repay the insult by surprising him." He set out and arrived at Meng. He seized and humiliated Duke Xiang of Song, then released him. In his thirty-fourth year, Duke Wen of Zheng journeyed south to court Chu. King Cheng led a northern campaign against Song, defeated it at Hong, and wounded Duke Xiang of Song with an arrow. The duke's wounds grew infected, and he died. In his thirty-fifth year, Prince Chong'er of Jin passed through Chu on his travels. King Cheng received him as a distinguished guest and entertained him lavishly, then sent him on his way to Qin with generous gifts. In his thirty-ninth year, Duke Xi of Lu requested troops to attack Qi. Chu dispatched Shen Hou to lead the campaign. He captured Gu and installed there the son of Duke Huan of Qi. All seven sons of Duke Huan had fled to Chu, and Chu made them senior officials. Chu destroyed Kui, because Kui failed to sacrifice to Zhurong and Yu Xiong. That summer, it attacked Song. Song appealed urgently to Jin for aid. Jin came to Song's rescue, and King Cheng broke off his campaign and returned home. The general Zi Yu requested battle, but King Cheng said: "Chong'er lived abroad for a long time, and finally returned to his state—it is heaven's doing that he has come back. We cannot oppose heaven." Zi Yu insisted, so the king gave him the small force and sent him off. Jin indeed defeated Zi Yu at Chengpu. King Cheng flew into a rage and executed Zi Yu. In his forty-sixth year, King Cheng initially intended to install Shang Chen as heir apparent, and so consulted the Minister Shang Zi Shu. Zi Shu said: "Your Majesty is still young, and there are many favorites in your inner quarters. Deposing the heir would cause disorder. In Chu, the choice of successor normally falls to the youngest. Moreover, Shang Chen has the eyes of a wasp and the voice of a jackal—a ruthless man. He cannot be installed." The king did not listen and installed him anyway. Later, he wished to install Zi Zhi and set aside Shang Chen. Shang Chen heard of this but was not certain. He told his tutor Pan Chong: "How might I learn the truth?" Pan Chong replied: "Host a feast for the king's favored concubine Jiang Mi and show her no respect." Shang Chen did so. Jiang Mi flew into a rage: "How fitting that the king wishes to kill you and install Zi Zhi!" Shang Chen reported to Pan Chong: "It is true." Pan Chong said: "Can you serve him?" "No." "Can you flee?" "No." "Can you carry out a great undertaking?" "Yes." In the winter month of October, Shang Chen led palace guards to surround King Cheng. The king requested that he might eat bear's paw before dying, but this was refused. On the day of Dingwei, King Cheng strangled himself. Shang Chen succeeded him as King Mu. King Mu, upon ascending the throne, gave Pan Chong the heir apparent's palace and appointed him Grand Preceptor, with control over state affairs. In King Mu's third year, he destroyed Jiang. In his fourth year, he destroyed Liu and Liao. Liu and Liao were descendants of Gao Yao. In his eighth year, he attacked Chen. In his twelfth year, he died. His son King Zhuang Lü succeeded him. King Zhuang, upon ascending the throne, for three years issued no orders. Day and night he indulged in pleasure, and he declared throughout the kingdom: "Whoever dares to remonstrate shall be put to death without pardon!" Wu Ju entered to remonstrate. The king sat with a Lady of Zheng on his left and a Lady of Yue on his right, amid bells and drums. Wu Ju said: "I venture to present a riddle. There is a bird perched on a mound; for three years it neither flies nor sings. What manner of bird is this?" The king replied: "If it does not fly for three years, when it flies it shall soar to heaven. If it does not sing for three years, when it sings it shall astonish the world. You may withdraw—I understand." Some months passed, and the king grew even more licentious. The great officer Su Cong entered to remonstrate. The king said: "Have you not heard the decree?" He replied: "To sacrifice oneself to illuminate the ruler—that is what a subject desires." The king thereupon ceased his indulgent pleasures and attended to government. He executed several hundred people and promoted several hundred people. He entrusted affairs of state to Wu Ju and Su Cong, and the people of the kingdom were greatly pleased. That same year, Chu destroyed Yong. In his sixth year, it attacked Song and captured five hundred chariots. In his eighth year, it attacked the Lurong tribe and then advanced to the Luo River, displaying its armies in the royal outskirts. King Ding of Zhou dispatched Wang Sun Man to greet the King of Chu. The king asked about the size and weight of the Nine Tripods. Wang Sun Man replied: "What matters is virtue, not the tripods." The king said: "Do not think to obstruct the Nine Tripods! The tips of our hooks and sword-blades would be enough to cast nine tripods." Wang Sun Man said: "Alas! Has Your Majesty forgotten? In the flourishing age of Yu and Xia, all distant lands came to pay tribute. The nine provinces contributed bronze to cast the tripods, portraying the creatures, and all manner of things were depicted so that the people might know the spirits and the wicked. When Jie lost virtue, the tripods moved to Shang. Shang lasted six hundred years and more. When Zhou's king was brutal and licentious, the tripods moved to Zhou. When virtue shines brilliantly, even a small tripod must be heavy; when virtue is corrupt and chaotic, even a large tripod must be light. When King Cheng established the tripods at Jiaru, the oracle predicted thirty generations and seven hundred years—this was the mandate of heaven. Although Zhou's virtue has declined, heaven's mandate has not changed. The weight of the tripods cannot yet be discussed." The king thereupon withdrew. In his ninth year, he destroyed the Ruo'ao clan. Someone slandered them to the king, and fearing punishment, they raised a rebellion. The king attacked and annihilated the Ruo'ao clan. In his thirteenth year, he destroyed Shu. In his sixteenth year, he attacked Chen and killed Xia Zhengshu, because Zhengshu had assassinated his lord, and so was executed. Having defeated Chen, he organized it into a county. All his ministers came to offer congratulations. Shen Shushi, who had been on an embassy to Qi, returned and did not congratulate him. The king asked why, and he replied: "There is a saying: A man leads an ox through another's field; the field's owner takes his ox. The man who led the ox through was not in the right—how much more unjust that the ox should be taken! Moreover, Your Majesty took advantage of Chen's turmoil to lead the vassals in attacking it. If you attacked for righteousness but covet the county, how can you fulfill your commands to the realm?" The king thereupon restored Chen to its former status. In the spring of his seventeenth year, King Zhuang of Chu besieged Zheng. In three months, he captured it. He entered through the main gate. The Lord of Zheng, baring his chest and leading a sheep, came to greet him, saying: "I am not heaven's chosen; I could not serve Your Majesty. You in your wrath have come to our state—this is my crime. How dare I not obey your commands! Banish me to the southern sea; if you wish to grant me as a subject or concubine to the lords, I shall obey. If you do not forget the kings Li, Xuan, Huan, and Wu, and do not extinguish our altars, but allow me to serve Your Majesty anew—that is my hope, not something I dare expect. I venture to lay my heart before you." The ministers of Chu said: "Do not grant his request." The king said: "The lord can humble himself before others; surely he can trust and employ his people. How could we destroy such a state?" The king himself held the banner, and his officers directed the troops. He withdrew thirty li and encamped, then agreed to terms of peace. Pan Wang entered into a pact, and Zi Liang left as a hostage. In the summer, in the sixth month, Jin came to Zheng's rescue and fought Chu. Chu suffered a crushing defeat at the river. The army advanced to Hengyong and then returned. In his twentieth year, he besieged Song, because Song had killed the Chu envoy. The siege lasted five months. Within the city, food ran out; they exchanged children to eat and split bones for fuel. Hua Yuan of Song came out and told the truth of their situation. The king said: "A gentleman indeed!" He then withdrew his forces. In his twenty-third year, King Zhuang died. His son King Gong Shen succeeded him. In King Gong's sixteenth year, Jin attacked Zheng. Zheng appealed urgently for help. King Gong led troops to relieve Zheng. They fought at Yanling, and Jin defeated Chu, wounding King Gong in the eye. The king summoned his general Zi Fan. Zi Fan was fond of wine. His attendant Shu Yang Gu presented him with wine. He was drunk. The king flew into a rage and shot Zi Fan dead, then withdrew his forces and returned. In his thirty-first year, King Gong died. His son Kang Wang Zhao succeeded him. Kang Wang ruled for fifteen years and died. His son Yun succeeded him as Jia Ao. Kang Wang had favored his younger brothers: the prince Wei, Zi Bi, Zi Xi, and Qi Ji. In Jia Ao's third year, he appointed his uncle, Kang Wang's younger brother Prince Wei, as Prime Minister, in charge of military affairs. In his fourth year, Wei was sent on an embassy to Zheng. On the way, he heard that the king was ill, so he returned. On the day of Jiayou of the twelfth month, Wei entered to inquire after the king's health, strangled him with a rope, and killed his son Moji and Pingxia. He sent envoys to Zheng with an announcement of the death. Wu Ju asked: "Who is the successor?" The reply came: "The former minister Wei." Wu Ju corrected this: "The son of King Gong, Wei, is the elder."

Zi Bi fled to Jin, while Wei was established as king—this was King Ling. In the sixth month of King Ling's third year, Chu sent envoys to Jin to announce a meeting of the feudal lords. All the lords assembled with Chu at Shen. Wu Ju said: "In former times, Xia Qi held a feast at Juntai, Shang Tang issued a decree at Jingbo, King Wu of Zhou took an oath at Mengjin, King Cheng held a hunt at Qiyang, King Kang held a court audience at Feng Palace, King Mu held a meeting at Tushan, Duke Huan of Qi marshaled his forces at Zhaoling, and Duke Wen of Jin formed an alliance at Jiantu. Which would Your Majesty employ?" King Ling replied: "We will employ Duke Huan." At this time, Zichan of Zheng was present, and consequently the envoys of Jin, Song, Lu, and Wei did not go. When King Ling had completed the alliance, he displayed an air of arrogance. Wu Ju said: "Jie held a meeting at Youreng, and the state of Youmin rebelled. Zhou held a meeting at Lishan, and the eastern Yi rebelled. King You held an alliance at Tai Hall, and the Rong and Di rebelled. Your Majesty should be careful about the end result!"

In the seventh year, he completed the Zhanghua Terrace and ordered the settlement of fugitives within it. In the eighth year, he sent Prince Qiwu to lead troops in destroying Chen. In the tenth year, he summoned the lord of Cai, got him drunk, and killed him. He then sent Qiwu to pacify Cai, thereby becoming lord of both Chen and Cai. In the eleventh year, he attacked Xu to intimidate Wu. King Ling encamped at Ganxi to await the enemy.

The king said: "In ancient times my imperial ancestor, Kunwu, once dwelt in the old Xu territory. Now the men of Zheng are greedy for its fields and will not give it to us. Now I demand it—will they give it to me?" Xifu replied: "If Zhou does not grudge the tripods, how would Zheng dare grudge its fields?"

The king said: "In former times the feudal lords kept their distance from us and feared Jin. Now I have greatly enlarged the cities of Chen, Cai, and Bugeng, each garrisoned with a thousand chariots. Will the lords fear me?" Xifu replied: "They will indeed!"

Guanyou followed the army to Ganxi and addressed the Chu troops: "The state already has a king. Those who return first shall have their titles and lands restored. Those who lag behind will be exiled." The Chu forces all dispersed and abandoned Ling Wang, returning to the capital.

The Right Minister said: "Please wait at the outskirts of the capital to learn the decision of the people." The king said: "The people's anger cannot be withstood." The minister suggested: "We might flee to a great state and beg for troops." The king said: "All have rebelled." The minister proposed: "Let us flee to the feudal lords and place ourselves at the mercy of the great powers." The king replied: "Great fortune comes but once—this would only bring humiliation."

The king then boarded a boat, intending to enter Yan. The Right Minister considered the king's plans useless and, fearing they would both die, also abandoned the king and fled.

In the thirty-seventh year, Xiong Tong of Chu said angrily: 'My ancestor Yuxiong was the teacher of King Wen, but he died early. King Cheng raised up my former ancestor, yet gave him only the lands of a viscount or baron and made him dwell in Chu. The Man and Yi tribes all submitted and obeyed, but the Zhou king did not raise his rank; I will honor myself.' He then proclaimed himself King Wu, made a covenant with the people of Sui, and departed. Thereupon he began to open up and possess the territory of Pu. In the fifty-first year, the Zhou king summoned the Marquis of Sui and repeatedly reproached him for having allowed Chu to become a king. Chu was enraged, believing that Sui had betrayed it, and attacked Sui.

Now at this time, although Chu had established Bi as king, they feared Ling Wang might return, and having not heard of Ling Wang's death, Guanyou said to the first king, Bi: "If you do not kill Qiwu, though you possess the state, you will only receive disaster." The king replied: "I cannot bear to do it." Guanyou said: "Others will bear to do it." The king would not listen, and departed.

Bi and Zixi thereupon took their own lives. On the day Bingchen, Qiwu ascended the throne, changed his name to Xiong Ju, and became King Ping. King Ping had seized the throne from two kings through treachery, and fearing that the people and the lords would rebel, he showered them with benefits. He restored the lands of Chen and Cai and installed their former heirs, returned the territories that Zheng had taken, and showed compassion to those in distress, governing with justice and instruction.

Initially, when Zi Bi had returned from Jin, Han Xuanzi asked Shu Xiang: "Will Zi Bi succeed?" He replied: "He will not." Xuanzi said: "Those who share hatred seek each other out, like merchants in a market—why would he not succeed?" Shu Xiang answered: "Without shared affection, who would share his hatred? Five difficulties attend the seizure of a state: having the ruler's favor but no worthy followers—that is the first; having followers but no inner supporter—that is the second; having a supporter but no stratagem—that is the third; having a stratagem but no people—that is the fourth; having people but no virtue—that is the fifth. Zi Bi has been in Jin for thirteen years; none among the followers of Jin and Chu has ever corresponded with him—surely he has no worthy followers. His clan is extinct and his relatives have all turned against him—surely he has no supporter. He moves without any opportunity—surely he has no stratagem. He will pass his life as an exile—surely he has no people. His exile offers nothing to recommend him—surely he has no virtue. The king is tyrannical and ruthless, yet Zi Bi attempts regicide through these five difficulties—who could help him succeed? The one who will possess Chu should be Qiwu. He rules Chen and Cai, with the outer regions beyond the fortified wall. Harsh oppression has ceased, thieves and bandits hide in concealment, private desires do not violate the public good, and the people have no cause for resentment. The spirits have commanded him, and the people trust him. When a branch of the Mi surname falls into chaos, it is the youngest who is established—this is the constant practice of Chu. As for Zi Bi's position, he is merely a Right Minister; in rank and favor, he is a son of a secondary wife; according to the spirits' command, he stands far from the sign; the people do not cherish him—how could he be established?"

Zi Bi indeed did not end well; the one who was established was Qiwu, just as Shu Xiang had foretold.

In the second year of King Ping's reign, he sent Fei Wuji to Qin to select a wife for Crown Prince Jian. The woman was beautiful; before she arrived, Wuji returned ahead of her and said to the king: "The Qin lady is lovely—Your Majesty might take her for himself and seek another bride for the crown prince." The king agreed and ultimately married the Qin lady himself, by whom he had Xiong Zhen. A different wife was found for the crown prince. At this time Wu She was the Crown Prince's Grand Preceptor, and Wuji was the Junior Preceptor. Wuji had no standing with the crown prince and constantly slandered him. Prince Jian was then fifteen; his mother was a lady of Cai and held no favor with the king, who gradually grew more distant from him.

In the sixth year, the crown prince Jian was sent to Chengfu to guard the borders. Wuji again and again slandered Prince Jian before the king, saying: "Ever since Wuji brought the Qin lady, the crown prince has resented it—he cannot but feel wronged by Your Majesty. The king should take precautions. Moreover, the crown prince at Chengfu commands troops and corresponds with the feudal lords—surely he intends to enter."

The king summoned Wu She, the crown prince's tutor, and reproached him. Wu She knew Wuji had been slandering and said: "Why should Your Majesty, over a petty officer's words, grow estranged from your own flesh and blood?" Wuji said: "If this is not dealt with now, there will be regret." Thereupon the king imprisoned Wu She and ordered Marshal Fen Yang to summon Prince Jian, intending to execute him. When the prince heard of this, he fled to Song.

Wuji said: "Wu She has two sons. If they are not killed, they will bring calamity to Chu. Why not summon them with the promise of freeing their father? They will surely come." The king sent a messenger to Wu She: "If you can bring your two sons, you shall live; if not, you will die." Wu She said: "Shang will come; Xu will not." The king asked: "Why?" Wu She said: "Shang's character is upright and principled, devoted to filial piety and benevolence—he would come at the summons to save his father, regardless of danger. Xu's character is shrewd and strategic, valorous yet self-important, knowing that coming means death—he will not come. But it is certainly Xu who will be the source of Chu's trouble."

The king then summoned them, saying: "Come—I will spare your father." Wu Shang said to Wu Xu: "To hear that one's father is pardoned yet not run to him is unfilial; to fail to avenge one's father when killed is unprincipled; to gauge one's abilities and know what one can accomplish is wise. Go—let me return to die." Wu Shang accordingly went back. Wu Xu bent his bow and fitted an arrow, then went to meet the messenger: "My father has committed a crime—why summon his sons?" He prepared to shoot. The messenger turned and fled. Wu Xu then fled to Wu. When Wu She heard this, he said: "Xu has fled—Chu is in peril." The Chu people thereupon executed Wu She and Wu Shang.

Earlier, the border town of Beiliang in Wu had clashed with the Chu border town of Zhongli over a mulberry tree. The two families quarrelled and fought, and the Beiliang men were killed. The Beiliang chief, enraged, mobilized his town's forces to attack Zhongli. When the Chu king heard of this, he was furious and mobilized the state's army to destroy Beiliang. When the Wu king heard of this, he was equally furious. He too mobilized his forces, sending Prince Guang to attack Chu via the family connections of Prince Jian's mother, and destroyed both Zhongli and Juxiao. Chu was terrified and fortified Ying.

In the thirteenth year, King Ping died. General Zichang said: "The crown prince Zhen is young, and his mother is the one whom the former Crown Prince Jian should have married." He wished to install Minister Zixi. Zixi, King Ping's half-brother, was righteous. Zixi said: "The state has fixed laws; to replace the heir causes chaos. To speak of it invites punishment." They thereupon installed Crown Prince Zhen, who became King Zhao.

The Chu army fled, and Wu pressed its victory, chasing them through five engagements until reaching Ying. On the day of jiyou, King Zhao departed the capital in flight. The following day, gengxu, Wu entered Ying. When King Zhao fled to Yunmeng, the people there did not recognize their king, and one of them shot him with an arrow. The king escaped to Yun. The lord of Yun's brother Huai said: "King Ping killed our father; now let us kill his son—isn't that justified?" The lord of Yun tried to stop him, but fearing he might murder King Zhao, he fled with the king to Sui. When the King of Wu learned that King Zhao had gone to Sui, he advanced to attack it, saying to the people of Sui: "The descendants of the Zhou kings who were enfeoffed between the Yangtze and Han rivers—all have been destroyed by Chu. We intend to kill King Zhao." The minister Ziqi concealed the king deeply and, claiming to be the king himself, said to the people of Sui: "Give me to Wu." The people of Sui divined whether to hand them over to Wu, and the omen was unfavorable. They declined to the King of Wu, saying: "King Zhao has fled and is not in Sui." Wu demanded to search the city itself, but Sui refused, and Wu also withdrew. When King Zhao fled Ying, he had sent Shen Baoxu to plead with Qin for help. Qin sent five hundred chariots to rescue Chu, and Chu also gathered its scattered forces, joining with Qin to strike Wu. In the eleventh year, in the sixth month, they defeated Wu at Ji. It happened that Fu Ji—younger brother of the King of Wu—seeing the king's forces wounded and defeated, fled back and proclaimed himself king. Upon hearing this, Helü led his army away from Chu to return and attack Fu Ji. Fu Ji was defeated and fled to Chu, where Chu enfeoffed him at Tangxi, giving him the title Tangxi Shi. King Zhao of Chu destroyed Tang. In the ninth month, he returned and entered Ying.

In the twenty-seventh year, in spring, Wu attacked Chen, and King Zhao of Chu came to its relief, encamping at Chengfu. In the tenth month, King Zhao fell ill in the army camp. A red cloud shaped like a bird appeared, flying across the sun. The king consulted the Zhou grand scribe, who said: "This bodes ill for the King of Chu, but it can be transferred to the general or minister." The generals and ministers, hearing this, requested that they personally pray to the spirits on behalf of the king. King Zhao said: "Generals and ministers are my arms and legs. To transfer misfortune—should I rid myself of my own body?" He would not listen. They divined and found that the River God was the cause of the affliction. The great officers requested to pray to the River. The king said: "Since our former kings received their enfeoffment, our offerings have never extended beyond the Yangtze and Han rivers. The River is not where we have committed offenses." He stopped them and refused. When Confucius heard of this in Chen, he said: "King Zhao of Chu understood the great principle. It is fitting that he did not lose his state."

When King Zhao's illness grew severe, he summoned his princes and great officers and said: "I, without ability, have twice brought shame to Chu's armies. Now I am able to end my life naturally—this is my good fortune." He offered the succession to his younger brother Prince Shen, who refused. He then offered it to the next younger brother Prince Jie, who also refused. He then offered it to the next younger brother Prince Lü, and after five offers, Prince Lü finally consented to become king. When they prepared for battle, on the day gengyin, King Zhao died in the army camp. Prince Lü said: "The king was gravely ill and set aside his son to entrust the succession to his ministers. We agreed to the king's wishes to ease his mind. Now that the king has passed, how could we forget his intentions?" He then consulted with Zi Xi and Ziqi. They concealed troops, blocked the roads, welcomed the queen of Yue's son Zhang, and enthroned him as King Hui. Only then did they withdraw the army and return to bury King Zhao.

Wu Ju said: "When Jie held the assembly at Youreng, Youmin rebelled against him. When Zhou held the assembly at Lishan, the Eastern Yi rebelled against him. When King You held the covenant at Taishi, the Rong and Di rebelled against him. My lord, you should carefully consider how things end!" In the seventh month, Chu led the armies of the feudal lords to attack Wu and besieged Zhufang. In the eighth month, they captured it, imprisoned Qing Feng, and exterminated his clan. They paraded Qing Feng, proclaiming: "Do not be like Qing Feng of Qi, who murdered his ruler and oppressed his orphaned son, and then bound the high officers with such an oath!"

In the first year of King Jian's reign, he attacked north and destroyed Ju. In the eighth year, the rulers of Wei, Han, and Zhao—Wen Hou, Han Wuzi, and Zhao Wanzi—were first ennobled as feudal lords. In the twenty-fourth year, King Jian died. His son King Sheng Wang ascended the throne.

In the sixth year of King Sheng's reign, bandits assassinated King Sheng. His son King Dao, Xiong Yi, ascended the throne. In the second year of King Dao's reign, the three Jin states of Wei, Han, and Zhao attacked Chu, reaching Chengwu before retreating. In the fourth year, Chu attacked Zhou. Zheng killed Ziyang. In the ninth year, Chu attacked Han and took Fushu. In the eleventh year, the three Jin states attacked Chu, defeating Chu at Daliang and Yuguan. Chu bribed Qin heavily, and they made peace. In the twenty-first year, King Dao died. His son King Su Wang ascended the throne.

In the fourth year of King Su's reign, Shu attacked Chu and took Zifang. Chu therefore built fortifications at Hangu Pass to resist them. In the tenth year, Wei took our Luyang. In the eleventh year, King Su died without sons. His brother Xiong Liangfu ascended the throne as King Xuan.

In the sixth year of King Xuan's reign, the Zhou Son of Heaven sent congratulations to Qin Xian Gong. Qin began to grow strong again, while the three Jin states became more powerful, especially Wei Hui Wang and Qi Wei Wang. In the thirtieth year, Qin enfeoffed Wei Yang at Shang, preparing to invade Chu southward. That same year, King Xuan died. His son King Wei, Xiong Shang, ascended the throne.

In the sixth year of King Wei's reign, King Xian of Zhou sent the sacrifices of Wen and Wu to Qin Hui Wang. In the seventh year, the Qi lord Mengchangjun's father Tian Ying deceived Chu. King Wei of Chu attacked Qi and defeated them at Xuzhou, then ordered Qi to expel Tian Ying. Tian Ying was frightened. Zhang Chou falsely told the Chu king: "Your Majesty's victory at Xuzhou was because Tian Pan was not employed. Tian Pan had rendered service to the state, and the common people were devoted to him. But Your Majesty did not favor him and instead employed Shenji. Shenji is a minister whom the great officers do not follow and the common people do not serve. That is why Your Majesty won. If Your Majesty now expels Yingzi, and Yingzi is expelled, then Tian Pan will certainly be employed. If he again drills his soldiers to confront Your Majesty, it will certainly go badly for Your Majesty." The King of Chu therefore did not expel him. In the eleventh year, King Wei died. His son King Huai, Xiong Hai, ascended the throne.

When Wei learned of Chu's mourning period, it attacked Chu and took Xing Mountain. In the first year of King Huai's reign, Zhang Yi began his tenure as prime minister to Qin Hui Wang. In the fourth year, Qin Hui Wang first took the title of king. In the sixth year, Chu sent its column lord Zhaoyang to lead an army against Wei, defeating them at Xiangling and gaining eight cities. He then shifted his forces to attack Qi, which troubled the Qi king. Chen Zhen happened to be in Qi as an envoy from Qin. The Qi king said: "What should be done?" Chen Zhen said: "Your Majesty need not worry. Let me go and settle this." He immediately went to Zhaoyang's army and said: "I would like to hear what Chu's laws say about one who shatters an enemy army and kills its general—what honors are given?" Zhaoyang said: "His office becomes Upper Ruler of the Army, with the highest rank and the title of Ji." Chen Zhen said: "Is there anything higher than this?" Zhaoyang said: "Minister of the Interior." Chen Zhen said: "Now Your Lordship already holds the position of Minister of the Interior—you stand at the very top of the state. Allow me to offer an analogy. Suppose a man gave a cup of wine to his fellow attendant. The attendant said to each other: 'Several of us sharing this won't be enough. Let us draw a snake on the ground; whoever finishes the snake first drinks the wine alone.' One man said: 'My snake is done.' He lifted his cup and stood up, saying: 'I can add feet to it.' By the time he finished adding feet to his snake, another man had snatched the wine and drunk it, saying: 'A snake has no feet; what you have drawn is not a snake.' Now Your Lordship serves Chu and attacks Wei, shattering the enemy army and killing its general—no achievement could be greater, nothing higher can be added to your rank. If you now shift your forces to attack Qi, if you win, your rank cannot be increased; if you fail, you will die and lose your rank, bringing disgrace to Chu. This is the example of adding feet to a snake. Better to lead your army away and show favor to Qi—this is the method of holding steady at full capacity." Zhaoyang said: "Well said." He led his army away.

In the eleventh year, Su Qin arranged a vertical alliance of the six states east of the mountains to jointly attack Qin. King Huai of Chu was made leader of the alliance. When they reached Hangu Pass, Qin sent out troops to strike the six states. All six armies turned and retreated; only Qi was last to withdraw. In the twelfth year, King Min of Qi attacked and defeated the armies of Zhao and Wei. Qin also attacked and defeated Han, contending with Qi for supremacy. In the sixteenth year, Qin wished to attack Qi, but Chu and Qi had formed a close alliance. King Hui of Qin was troubled by this. He declared that Zhang Yi would be relieved of his position as prime minister, then sent Zhang Yi south to meet with the King of Chu, who said: "The ruler of our humble state holds no one in higher regard than Your Majesty. Even the most menial post at Your Majesty's gate would be my greatest wish. The ruler of our humble state holds no one in greater contempt than the King of Qi, and I myself cannot bear him any more than he. But if Your Majesty would harmonize with him, then the ruler of our humble state would not dare to serve Your Majesty, and I would not even be allowed to serve as a gate-keeper. If Your Majesty closes the passes and severs ties with Qi, then I shall send envoys with Your Lordship westward to reclaim the six hundred li of Shangyu territory that Qin took from Chu. In this way, Qi will be weakened; you will weaken Qi to the north and gain Qin's favor to the west; privately securing Shangyu will enrich you. This single strategy brings three benefits." King Huai was greatly pleased. He placed the seal of the prime minister on Zhang Yi and each day held banquets, declaring: "I have regained my Shangyu territory." All the ministers offered congratulations, but Chen Zhen alone mourned. The king said: "Why?" Chen Zhen replied: "What makes Qin value Your Majesty is your alliance with Qi. Now if the territory is not obtained yet your relations with Qi are first severed, this abandons Chu. How could Qin possibly value an isolated state? It would certainly despise Chu. Moreover, if you first give up territory and then sever Qi, Qin's strategy would be different. If you first sever Qi and then demand the territory, you will surely be deceived by Zhang Yi. Being deceived by Zhang Yi, Your Majesty will certainly resent him. Resentment, combined with western aggression from Qin and northern severance from Qi—western aggression from Qin and northern severance from Qi will bring the armies of both states to your borders. That is why I mourn." The king would not listen. He sent a general westward to receive the promised territory.

Zhang Yi returned to Qin, pretended to be drunk and fell from his carriage, and claimed illness for three months, during which no territory was delivered. The king said: "Does Zhang Yi think our severance of Qi was insufficient?" He sent the warrior Song Yi north to insult the King of Qi. The Qi king was furious. He broke the Chu tallies and allied with Qin. When Qin and Qi had formed their alliance, Zhang Yi rose to court and said to the Chu general: "Why have you not accepted the land? From here to there, six li." The general said: "I was ordered to receive six hundred li—I have heard nothing of six li." He returned and reported to King Huai. The king was furious and raised an army to attack Qin.

Chen Zhen again said: "Attacking Qin is not a good plan. Better to bribe them with a famous city and together attack Qi. In this way, what we lose to Qin we gain back from Qi, and our state may still be preserved. Now Your Majesty has severed Qi and yet demand compensation from Qin—this brings together the armies of Qin and Qi and summons the forces of the world against us. The state will surely suffer greatly." The king would not listen. He severed the alliance with Qin and sent troops west to attack it. Qin also sent troops to strike back. In the seventeenth year, spring, they fought at Dan Yang. Qin inflicted a great defeat on our army, killing eighty thousand armored soldiers and capturing our grand general Qu Gai, deputy generals Feng Houchou and more than seventy others, then took the commandery of Hanzhong. King Huai was furious and mobilized all the state's forces to attack Qin again. They fought at Lan Tian and suffered a great defeat. When Han and Wei learned of Chu's predicament, they attacked south toward Chu, reaching Deng. When Chu heard of this, it withdrew its forces.

In the eighteenth year, Qin sent an envoy proposing to restore friendly relations with Chu, offering to divide Hanzhong equally. The king of Chu said: "I would rather have Zhang Yi than territory." When Zhang Yi heard this, he volunteered to go to Chu. The Qin king said: "Chu is set on destroying you—what will you do?" Zhang Yi said: "I am friends with Jin Shang, his attendant, and Jin Shang can also gain the favor of the Chu king's beloved consort Zheng Xiu. Everything Zheng Xiu says, the king follows. Moreover, I formerly deceived Chu with the Shangyu agreement, and now Qin and Chu are at war. I have offensive remarks to make. If I do not personally apologize to Chu, they will not be reconciled. Moreover, while Your Majesty is alive, Chu dare not take me. If they do kill me, it benefits the state—that is my wish." Zhang Yi therefore went to Chu.

Upon his arrival, King Huai would not see him and instead imprisoned Zhang Yi, intending to execute him. Zhang Yi privately spoke with Jin Shang, who pleaded on his behalf with the king: "If Zhang Yi is detained, King Qin will surely be angry. The world will see that Chu has no alliance with Qin and will despise Your Majesty." He also said to Lady Zheng Xiu: "The King of Qin loves Zhang Yi dearly, yet Your Majesty wishes to kill him. Qin will now offer six counties of the Shangyu region as a bribe to Chu, send beautiful women to marry the Chu king, and send skilled singers to serve as concubines. The king will value the territory and the Qin women will surely be honored—Your Ladyship will surely be eclipsed. Your Ladyship would do better to speak to the king and secure Zhang Yi's release." Lady Zheng Xiu finally spoke to the king on Zhang Yi's behalf, and he was released.

After Zhang Yi left, King Huawai of Chu received him generously. Zhang Yi then persuaded the King of Chu to break the anti-Qin alliance and draw close to Qin, establishing marital ties between the two states.

When Zhang Yi had departed, Qu Yuan arrived from Qi and remonstrated with the king: "Why did you not execute Zhang Yi?" King Huawai regretted his decision and sent men to pursue Zhang Yi, but they failed to catch him. That same year, King Hui of Qin died.

In the twentieth year, King Min of Qi, wishing to take leadership of the anti-Qin alliance, was troubled that Chu had drawn close to Qin. He sent an envoy to the King of Chu with a letter: "I am concerned that Chu does not understand the importance of honor. Now King Hui of Qin has died, and King Wu has ascended the throne. Zhang Yi has fled to Wei, while Chuuli Ji and Gongsun Yan are in positions of power, and Chu serves Qin. Chuuli Ji is close to Han, and Gongsun Yan is close to Wei; Chu will inevitably serve Qin, and Han and Wei, fearing them, will seek accommodation through these two men with Qin. Then Yan and Zhao will also serve Qin. If the four states all compete to serve Qin, Chu will be reduced to a mere county. Why not join your forces with mine to draw in Han, Wei, Yan, and Zhao, unite in alliance, and honor the Zhou court, thereby halting military operations and giving rest to the people, issuing orders throughout the realm? If none dare refuse to listen gladly, your majesty's name will be made. If your majesty leads the lords in a joint attack, you will surely defeat Qin. Your majesty may take Wuguan and the lands of Shu and Han, privately enjoy the wealth of Wu and Yue, and monopolize the profits of the rivers and seas. Han and Wei would cede Shangdang, pressing west to Hangu. Such would be Chu's might in its full strength. Moreover, your majesty was deceived by Zhang Yi and lost the territory of Hanzhong, your armies were defeated at Lantian, and all beneath heaven did not but sympathize with your majesty's wrath. Yet now you would serve Qin first! I beg your majesty to consider this carefully."

Zhao Ju said: "Even if your majesty gains territory in the east from Yue, it would not wipe out the shame. Only by taking territory from Qin would your majesty be able to wash away the humiliation before the other lords. Your majesty would do better to draw close to Qi and Han and elevate Chuuli Ji. If so, your majesty would gain the weight of both Han and Qi to demand territory from them. Qin has defeated Han at Yiyang, yet Han still serves Qin because the former kings' tombs are at Pingyang, and Qin's forces have withdrawn only seventy li from Wusui—for this reason they particularly fear Qin. If not, had Qin attacked the Three Rivers region, Zhao attacked Shangdang, and Chu attacked the lands beyond the Yellow River, Han would surely be destroyed. Even if Chu rescued Han, it could not prevent Han's destruction; yet Chu that preserves Han is itself preserved. Han has obtained Wusui from Qin, with rivers and mountains as its fortifications. Among those to whom it owes gratitude, none are more indebted to Chu than to any other. I believe Han will serve your majesty most diligently. What Qi trusts in Han for is that Han's Prince Mo serves as Qi's minister. Han has obtained Wusui from Qin, and your majesty has treated Han very well, sending envoys to join with Qi and Han in elevating Chuuli Ji. When Ji gains the support of both Qi and Han, his lord will not dare to abandon him. Now if we add Chu's weight to this, Chuuli Zi will surely speak for us in Qin, and we will recover Qin's stolen territories."

Thereupon King Huawai assented, and ultimately did not reconcile with Qin but instead allied with Qi and cultivated relations with Han.

In the twenty-fourth year, Chu broke with Qi and drew close to Qin. When King Zhaoxiang of Qin had newly ascended the throne, he sent generous gifts to Chu. Chu went to receive a bride from Qin. In the twenty-fifth year, King Huawai entered Qin to meet King Zhaoxiang, and they swore an oath at Huangji. Qin restored Shangyong to Chu.

In the twenty-eighth year, Qin, along with Qi, Han, and Wei, jointly attacked Chu, killed its general Tang Mo, and captured Zhongqiu before departing.

In the twenty-ninth year, Qin attacked Chu again, defeating Chu's armies severely. Chu's dead numbered over twenty thousand, and their general Jing Que was killed. King Huawai, frightened, sent his prince to Qi as a hostage to seek peace.

In the second year of King Hui's reign, Xiong Sheng was appointed Grand Master of Chao and given the title Duke Bai. Duke Bai loved military affairs, treated worthy men with respect, and was determined to avenge his father. In the sixth year, Duke Bai asked Prime Minister Zi Xi to lead troops to attack Zheng. Earlier, Duke Bai's father, Jian, had fled to Zheng, where he was killed; Duke Bai then fled to Wu, and Zi Xi summoned him back. Because of this, he harbored resentment against Zheng and wanted to attack it. Zi Xi agreed but did not yet dispatch the troops. In the eighth year, Jin attacked Zheng, and Zheng urgently appealed to Chu for help. Chu sent Zi Xi to rescue Zheng, but he accepted bribes and withdrew.

Duke Bai Sheng was furious. He immediately joined with brave warriors and death-defying followers such as Shi Qi, raided the court, assassinated Prime Minister Zi Xi and Zi Qi, seized King Hui, confined him in the High Palace, and planned to murder him. King Hui's attendant, Qu Gu, carried the king on his back and fled into the palace of Queen Dowager Zhao. Duke Bai declared himself king. After more than a month, the Duke of Ye arrived to rescue Chu, and King Hui's followers joined forces with him to attack Duke Bai and kill him. King Hui then returned to the throne. In that year, Chu destroyed Chen and made it a county.

When King Huawai read the letter from the King of Qin, he was worried. He wished to go but feared being deceived; he wished not to go but feared Qin's anger.

So the king went to meet King Zhaoxiang of Qin. The King of Qin secretly ordered a general to hide troops at Wuguan, posing as the King of Qin. When the King of Chu arrived, he was trapped; they sealed Wuguan and took him west to Xianyang. He was received at Zhangtai Palace like a subject, not with the courtesy due to an equal monarch.

In the eleventh year, King Su died without a son, so his younger brother Xiong Liangfu was installed, becoming King Xuan. In the sixth year of King Xuan, the Son of Heaven of Zhou congratulated Duke Xian of Qin. Qin began to grow strong again, while the three Jin states grew ever greater; King Hui of Wei and King Wei of Qi were especially powerful. In the thirtieth year, Qin enfeoffed Wei Yang at Shang and invaded Chu from the south. That same year, King Xuan died, and his son, King Wei Xiong Shang, succeeded. In the sixth year of King Wei, King Xian of Zhou presented the sacrificial meat of King Wen and King Wu to King Hui of Qin.

In the seventh year, Tian Ying, the father of Lord Mengchang of Qi, deceived Chu. King Wei of Chu attacked Qi, defeated them at Xuzhou, and demanded that Qi expel Tian Ying. Tian Ying was terrified. Zhang Chou went to the Chu king and falsely said: 'Your Majesty's victory at Xuzhou came about because Tian Panzi was not employed. Panzi has rendered meritorious service to his state, and the common people are willing to fight for him. Tian Ying dislikes him and employed Shen Ji instead. Shen Ji is not supported by the great ministers and the people are unwilling to serve him, therefore Your Majesty triumphed. Now if Your Majesty forces the expulsion of Tian Ying, once Ying is expelled, Panzi will surely be employed. He will again train his troops to engage Your Majesty, and that will certainly not be to Your Majesty's advantage.' The King of Chu accordingly refrained from expelling him.

He then informed Qin: "By the spirits of our ancestors, the state now has its king."

He then went to see Zhao Yang in the army and said: 'I would like to know the law of Chu: how is one who destroys an enemy army and kills its general rewarded?' Zhao Yang said: 'His office is Upper Pillar of State, and he is given the high rank of Gui-bearer.' Chen Zhen asked: 'Is there any rank more honorable than that?' Zhao Yang said: 'Prime Minister.' Chen Zhen said: 'You are already Prime Minister—this is the highest office in the state. Allow me to illustrate with an analogy. A man gave his steward a goblet of wine. The stewards said to one another: "There is not enough for several people to drink; let us draw snakes on the ground, and whoever finishes first shall drink it alone." One man said: "I have finished first." He raised the wine and said: "I can add feet to it." After he drew the feet, another man seized the wine and drank it, saying: "A snake has no feet; now that you have added feet, it is no longer a snake." Now you serve as prime minister of Chu and are attacking Wei; you have destroyed its army and killed its general—no achievement is greater than this, and to the highest office nothing further can be added.'

In the sixth year, Qin sent Bai Qi to attack Han at Yique, winning a great victory and beheading two hundred forty thousand men.

Qin then sent a letter to the King of Chu: "Chu has betrayed Qin, and Qin will lead the lords in attacking Chu, vying for supremacy. I wish your majesty to ready your troops and fight with enjoyment."

King Qingxiang of Chu was troubled and discussed reconciling with Qin.

In the seventh year, Chu received a bride from Qin, and Qin and Chu were reconciled.

In the eleventh year, Qi and Qin each proclaimed themselves emperors; after more than a month, they reverted to being kings.

In the fourteenth year, King Qingxiang of Chu met King Zhaoxiang of Qin in a friendly gathering at Wan, establishing peace and marriage ties.

In the fifteenth year, the King of Chu, along with Qin, the three Jin states, and Yan, jointly attacked Qi and captured the Huaibei region.

In the sixteenth year, he met King Zhaoxiang of Qin in a friendly gathering at Yan. That autumn, he met the King of Qin again at Rang.

In the eighteenth year, there was a man from Chu who was skilled at shooting wild geese with a weak bow and slight arrows. King Qingxiang heard of him and summoned him to ask about it.

He replied: "What your servant enjoys is shooting qiyan and luong birds—a matter of releasing small arrows. How could this be worth telling your majesty? Moreover, speaking of Chu's greatness and your majesty's wisdom, the game we hunt is not merely this. In ancient times, the Three Kings hunted moral virtue, and the Five Hegemons hunted wars among states. Thus, Qin, Wei, Yan, and Zhao are the qiyan; Qi, Lu, Han, and Wei are the qingshou; Zou, Fei, Tan, and Pi are the luong. Those beyond are not worth shooting. Seeing six pairs of birds, what would your majesty take? Why not use the wise man as your bow and the warrior as your arrow, open and shoot them? These six pairs can be obtained and carried away in sacks. The joy is not merely for a morning or evening, nor is the catch merely the substance of wildfowl. If your majesty opens the bow and shoots at the great Liang of Wei's south, passes the right arm through to connect with Han, then the road to Zhongguo would be cut off and the region of Shangcai would be ruined. Shooting back at Yu's east, releasing Wei's left elbow to strike out at Dingtao externally, then Wei's eastern external frontier would be abandoned, and the two commanderies of Daxing and Fangyu would be taken. Moreover, Wei would be broken on both arms and overthrown. Striking the state of Tan, great Liang could be possessed. Your majesty draws the bow on Lantai, drinks from the Western River, and settles Wei's great Liang—thus the joy of a single shot. If your majesty truly enjoys archery without tiring, then take out the precious bow, string new arrows, shoot zhou birds over the Eastern Sea, return to cover the Great Wall as defense. Shoot eastward at Ju in the morning, depart for Laiqiu in the evening, arrive at Jimo by night, look back to hold Wudao—then the east of the Great Wall would be taken and the north of Mount Tai raised. Connect with Zhao in the west and reach to Yan in the north; with three states deployed, the alliance would be formed without need of treaty. Gaze north over Liao of Yan and south ascend Kuaiji of Yue—thus the joy of a second shot. As for the twelve lords above the Si River, stroke with the left hand and brush with the right, they can be finished in a single morning." Moreover, now Qin has made Han a long-standing worry, holding fortified cities but not daring to defend them; attacking Wei without success, striking Zhao but only depleting itself—thus the courage and strength of Qin and Wei are exhausted. Chu's former territories of Hanzhong, Xi, and Li can be recovered. Your majesty takes out the precious bow and strings new arrows, crosses the passes, and awaits Qin's exhaustion. Then the lands within the Yellow River can be unified. Your majesty would rest the people, and all would call your majesty king.

Thus speaking: "Qin is a great bird, bearing the realm on its back, standing facing east. Its left arm reaches to Zhao's southwest, its right arm clings to Chu's Yan and Ying; its breast strikes Han and Wei, and its head hangs over Zhongguo. In such a position, with advantageous terrain and the power to spread its wings, spanning three thousand li, Qin cannot be approached and shot at alone."

Wishing to enrage King Qingxiang, the archer spoke thus. The king thereupon summoned him and spoke with him, and also said: "The former king was deceived by Qin and died abroad—the grudge could not be greater. Now if a common man bears a grievance, he would yet revenge himself on a ruler of ten thousand chariots, as did Bihua and Zixu. Now Chu's domain is five thousand li square, with a million armored soldiers, sufficient to charge about in the wilds. Yet to sit and be besieged, I secretly think your majesty should not adopt this."

Thereupon King Qingxiang sent envoys to the lords, restoring the alliance and wishing to attack Qin. When Qin heard of this, it sent troops to attack Chu. Chu wished to join with Qi and Han in attacking Qin, and thereby plot against Zhou.

Zhao Zi said: "To plot against Zhou—there is no such thing. Nevertheless, why should Zhou not be plotted against?"

In the eighteenth year, there was a man of Chu who liked to use a weak bow and light string to shoot at returning wild geese. King Qingxiang heard of him and summoned him to question him. He replied: 'Your servant enjoys shooting cranes and wild geese and netting the luan bird; these are merely small shots—why would they be worth recounting to Your Majesty? But when one speaks of Chu's vastness and Your Majesty's worthiness, what is shot at goes beyond these. In ancient times, the Three Kings shot for virtue and morality; the Five Hegemons shot for supremacy among the warring states. Thus Qin, Wei, Yan, and Zhao are the cranes and wild geese; Qi, Lu, Han, and Wei are the green-headed ducks; Zou, Fei, Tan, and Pi are the luan birds.'

Besides these, the rest are not worth shooting. If you see six pairs of birds, how will Your Majesty capture them? Why not use sages as the bow, brave warriors as the string, and at the right moment draw and shoot? These six pairs can then be bagged and carried away. The pleasure is not merely that of a single morning, nor is the catch merely wild ducks and geese. When Your Majesty draws the bow in the morning and shoots south of Wei's Daliang, extends your right arm to link directly with Han, the road to the Central Plains will be severed and Shangcai commandery will be ruined. Turn and shoot east of Yu, loosen Wei's left elbow and strike Dingtao from outside; then Wei's eastern outer lands will be abandoned, and the two commanderies of Dasong and Fangyu will be captured. With both arms severed, Wei will stumble and fall; then strike the state of Tan with your breast, and Daliang can be taken and held.

When Your Majesty strings a cord at Lan Terrace, waters your horses at the West River, and secures Wei's Daliang, this is the joy of a single shot. If you truly delight in archery and never tire of it, then bring out the treasured bow, attach a new cord, and shoot wild geese over the Eastern Sea. Circle back and use the Great Wall as a defensive line; in the morning shoot at Dongju, in the evening set out from Peiqiu, by night fall upon Jimo, then turn and occupy the Wudao road. Then the lands east of the Great Wall will be taken and the region north of Mount Tai will be captured. To the west, establish a border with Zhao and reach north to Yan; with these three states deployed, success can be achieved without waiting for treaties. Let your gaze roam north over Yan's Liaodong, and climb south to gaze over Yue's Kuaiji—this is the joy of a second shot. As for the twelve feudal lords along the Si River, encircle them on the left and sweep them on the right, and they can all be taken in a single morning.

Now Qin, having defeated Han, treats this as a lasting worry; it has taken a string of cities but dares not hold them. Its attack on Wei brought no merit, and its strike against Zhao only harmed itself. Thus the courage and strength of both Qin and Wei are spent, and Chu's old lands of Hanzhong, Xi, and Li can be recovered and possessed again. If Your Majesty brings out the treasured bow, attaches a new cord, crosses the border passes, and waits for Qin to become weary, the lands east of the mountains and within the bend of the Yellow River can be unified. Give rest to your people, and you may face south and be called king. Therefore it is said that Qin is a giant bird, resting with its back to the sea, standing facing east. Its left wing grips Zhao's southwest, its right wing presses against Chu's Yanying. It strikes Han and Wei with its breast and hangs its head over the Central Plains. Its position is topographically convenient, its terrain gives it strategic advantage. When it spreads its wings and beats them, it covers three thousand li—such a bird cannot be simply beckoned and shot in the dark.

King Qingxiang thereupon summoned him and spoke, and he then said: ‘The former king was deceived by Qin and died abroad; resentment could not be greater. Now, even a commoner with a grudge may take revenge on a lord of ten thousand chariots — witness Bai Gong and Wu Zixu. At present, Chu’s territory is five thousand li square, with a million armored soldiers; it is enough to leap and fight in the open field, yet it sits and endures difficulties. I humbly submit that Your Majesty should not accept such a state.’ Thereupon King Qingxiang dispatched envoys to the other feudal lords, re-formed the Vertical Alliance, intending to attack Qin. Qin heard of this, and sent troops to attack Chu. Chu wished to ally with Qi and Han to attack Qin, and took the opportunity to plot against Zhou. King Nan of Zhou sent Lord Wu to speak to the Chu chancellor Zhaozi, saying: ‘The three states are using military force to carve up Zhou’s suburban territory for convenient transport and will carry the ritual vessels south to honor Chu. I consider this inadvisable. For if one murders the common sovereign and forces a hereditary ruler to become a subject, the great states will not be friendly; if one threatens the few with the many, the small states will not submit.’

If one were to drape tiger skin over a deer from the marshes, attackers would come a hundred times more readily than against a real tiger. To partition Chu's lands would be enough to enrich the state; to humble Chu's name would be enough to honor one's lord. Now you wish to destroy the common ruler of all under heaven, to seize the heirlooms passed down through three dynasties, to devour sacred vessels—how could this not be greed? The Book of Zhou says, 'When one wishes to rise, nothing comes first,' so when vessels move south, soldiers will follow. Thus this plan against Chu was abandoned.

In the nineteenth year, Qin attacked Chu. The Chu army was defeated and ceded Shangjun and the northern Han region to Qin. In the twentieth year, Qin's General Bai Qi captured our western ridge. In the twenty-first year, General Bai Qi went on to seize our capital Ying, burning the ancestral tombs at Yiling. King Xiang of Chu's forces scattered and ceased fighting, retreating northeast to hold fast at Chen.

In the twenty-second year, Qin recaptured our commanderies of Wu and Qianzhong. In the twenty-third year, King Xiang gathered troops from the eastern territories—over a hundred thousand men—and recaptured to the west the fifteen towns Qin had taken along the river, establishing them as a commandery to resist Qin.

In King Kaolie's first year, he offered a region to Qin to seal a peace agreement. By this time Chu had grown steadily weaker. In his sixth year, Qin laid siege to Handan. Zhao urgently appealed to Chu for help, and King Kaolie dispatched General Jing Yang to rescue Zhao. In the seventh year, they arrived at Xinzhong, and Qin's forces withdrew.

In the twelfth year, King Zhaoxiang of Qin died. The King of Chu sent Lord Chunshen to offer condolences and sacrifices in Qin. In the sixteenth year, King Zhuangxiang of Qin died, and the King of Qin, Zhao Zheng, ascended the throne. In the twenty-second year, Chu joined the other princes in attacking Qin, but the campaign went badly and they withdrew.

Chu moved its capital east to Shouchun, renaming it Ying. In the twenty-fifth year, King Kaolie died. His son Han succeeded him as King You. Li Yuan assassinated Lord Chunshen.

King Fuchu's first year: the Yan Crown Prince Dan sent Jing Ke to assassinate the King of Qin. In the second year, Qin sent a general to attack Chu. The Chu army was severely defeated and lost more than ten cities. In the third year, Qin destroyed Wei. In the fourth year, Qin's General Wang Jian routed our army at Qi, killing General Xiang Yan. In the fifth year, Qin's Generals Wang Jian and Meng Wu destroyed Chu, captured King Fuchu, and Chu's name was erased, becoming a Qin commandery.

King Zhao was trapped and fled; King Huai was coerced and taken captive. In former times, King Fuchai of Wu invaded Chu, and King Zhao, besieged within Wu territory, fled in panic and wandered across the seas. As Qin’s power waxed, King Huai of Chu was deceived into traveling to Qin and was eventually imprisoned in the Xianyang palace, fettered in a dungeon. Chu faced difficulties both at home and abroad: the loyal minister Qu Yuan, in grief and indignation, drowned himself in the river; the common people suffered unspeakably. The government was corrupt, officials were venal and the people resentful; the frontiers were lost and commandery governors betrayed and surrendered. Qin armies pressed ever closer, and the people of Chu were racked with anxiety, furrowing their brows.

King Qingxiang and King Kaolie: the royal fortunes declined in the southern lands. King Qingxiang ascended the throne, inherited what his predecessors had left, carried out benevolent governance, recruited the worthy and received scholars, relaxed punishments and reduced taxes, encouraged agriculture and sericulture, striving to secure peace for the common people. But Qin armies were increasingly pressing at the borders, wars continued without respite, and external threats never ceased; powerful officials quarreled among themselves, government decrees were often flawed, and the state’s strength daily waned. Qin generals Bai Qi and Wang Jian led repeated incursions, seizing territory for a thousand li; Qin pursued the Horizontal Alliance strategy, sowing discord between Chu and the states of Qi and Yan, leaving Chu isolated. Traitors and sycophants at court—such as Lord Chunshen and Lü Buwei—manipulated power, discipline and order vanished, the people could barely survive, and bandits rose in swarms.

Looking comprehensively at the rise and fall of Chu: from King Zhao’s beleaguered flight and King Huai’s captivity, down to the reigns of Qingxiang and Kaolie, its fortunes had already declined in the southern lands and ultimately returned to Qin. A territory that had endured for over eight hundred years became but a single commandery of Qin; the people of Chu bitterly lost their homeland, and generation after generation cherished the memory of former glory. Yet the Way of Heaven is inconstant, rise and fall alternate, and later ages should take history as a mirror and not forget the anguish of overturned carts. The state broken, the ruling house perished, descendants scattered—the records in the histories still remain. Posterity should deeply ponder these lessons and be vigilant against the calamity brought by power and stratagems.