孝武本纪 — Shiji

Emperor Wu was a middle son of Emperor Jing. His mother was Queen Mother Wang. In the fourth year of Emperor Jing's reign, he was made King of Jiaodong as an imperial son. In the seventh year of Emperor Jing's reign, Crown Prince Li was deposed and made King of Linjiang, and the King of Jiaodong was installed as Crown Prince. When Emperor Jing died in the sixteenth year of his reign, the Crown Prince ascended the throne as Emperor Wu.

Upon his accession, Emperor Wu showed particular reverence for sacrifices to spirits and deities. In the first year of his reign, the Han had already been established for over sixty years. The realm was at peace, and officials of all ranks hoped the Son of Heaven would perform the feng and shan sacrifices at Mount Tai and reform the calendar and ritual colors. The emperor inclined toward Confucian teachings and summoned worthy men of talent. Zhao Wan, Wang Zang, and others, men of literary accomplishment, were made high officials. They proposed building an audience hall south of the capital to receive the feudal lords, and drafted plans for imperial tours, the feng and shan sacrifices, and revisions to the calendar and ceremonial dress. But before these proposals could be realized, Empress Dou, who governed the realm, was devoted to the teachings of the Yellow Emperor and Laozi, and had no taste for Confucianism. She sent agents to uncover evidence of fraud and illegal profit-making by Zhao Wan and his associates. She ordered their arrest and trial. Zhao Wan and Wang Zang committed suicide, and all their initiatives were abandoned.

At this time, the emperor sought out Divine Lady Jun. She was lodged in the Stag Meadow Pavilion in the imperial park at Tashih. Divine Lady Jun was a woman from Changling. She had lost a child and been consumed by grief, and so manifested as a deity to her sister-in-law, Ruoyou by name. Ruoyou established an altar to her in her own chamber, and many people came to worship there. When Princess of Pingyuan went to worship, her descendants subsequently rose to positions of honor and influence. When Emperor Wu ascended the throne, he lavished gifts and installed her in an inner chamber with sacrifices. He heard her words but never saw her person. It was around this time that Li Shaojun also gained an audience with the emperor through his methods of stove sacrifices, the path to immortality, and elixirs against aging.

Shaojun had originally been a deep-archive marquis's man assigned to oversee medicinal formulas. He concealed his age and origins, claiming to be seventy years old. He claimed power over spirits and freedom from aging. He traveled about using his methods among the feudal lords. He had no wife or children. When people heard he could control spirits and grant immortality, they sent him gifts, and he was always left with surplus gold, silk, food, and clothing. Everyone assumed he did not work for a living yet lived in comfort, and since no one knew who he was, they believed in him all the more and competed to serve him.

Shaojun had a natural gift for his methods and was adept at making startlingly accurate predictions. Once, while drinking at the estate of the Marquis of Wu'an, there was among the guests a man over ninety years old. Shaojun said to him, "When I was shooting with your grandfather, we passed this spot." The old man, who had indeed been a child when he walked with his grandfather, recognized the place. Everyone at the table was amazed.

Later, someone submitted a petition: "In ancient times, sons of heaven offered sacrifices to the Three Ones—Heaven One, Earth One, and Taiyi—with a Great Victim once every three years." The emperor approved, and ordered the Grand Sacrificer to lead the sacrifices at the Taiyi altar, following Youji's method.

Another petition followed: "In ancient times, sons of heaven offered seasonal exorcism sacrifices. Huangdi was sacrificed with one hiao bird and one niao beast; the Sun Sheep with a sheep; the Horse Deity with one blue bull; Taiyi, Lord of Gashan Mountain, and the Earth Masters with an ox; the Warrior Yi Lord with dried fish; and the Yin-Yang Messenger with one ox." The emperor ordered the Director of Sacrifices to carry out these rites according to the methods, and to sacrifice beside the Taiyi altar.

The King of Jibei, believing the emperor would soon perform the feng and shan sacrifices at Mount Tai, submitted a petition offering Mount Tai and its neighboring territories. The emperor accepted them, compensating with other counties. The King of Changshan was guilty of a crime and was exiled. The emperor enfeoffed his younger brother in Zhending to continue the ancestral sacrifices, while making Changshan into a commandery. Thus the Five Sacred Mountains all came under the emperor's jurisdiction.

The emperor had already executed Wencheng and regretted that he had died too early, lamenting that his methods had not been fully utilized. When he met Luan Da, he was delighted. Luan Da was a tall, handsome man, eloquent in his strategies, and bold in his pronouncements, never hesitating. He declared, "Your servant has traveled the seas and seen men like Anqi and Xianmen. They considered your servant too lowly to trust, and they thought King Kang was merely a feudal lord, not worthy of receiving their methods. Your servant repeatedly spoke to King Kang, but he would not employ your servant. My master said: 'Gold can be refined, river floods can be dammed, and elixirs of immortality can be obtained, and immortals can be summoned.' I fear that should I behave like Wencheng, the alchemists will all cover their mouths, not daring to speak of their methods!"

The emperor said, "Wencheng died from eating horse liver. If you can truly perfect his methods, will I stint anything?" Luan Da replied, "My master does not seek people; people must seek him. If Your Majesty truly wishes to summon him, honor his envoys. Let them have relatives honored, treat them as guests, do not humble them. Let each wear his credential seal. Only then can they communicate with the divine. Will the spirits be willing? Honor their envoys, and then the summons may succeed."

The emperor then had him first test a minor method with banners. The banners moved and struck each other. At that time the emperor was concerned about flooding rivers, and gold had not been successfully refined. He installed Luan Da as General of the Five Benefits. In just over a month, he obtained four golden seals, wearing those of General of Celestial Masters, General of Earthly Masters, General of Great Understanding, and General of the Way of Heaven.

An imperial edict to the Censor read: "Long ago, Yu opened the Nine Rivers and channeled the Four Great Streams. Recently, the rivers have overflowed their banks, and the dikes have demanded endless labor. I have reigned over the realm for twenty-eight years, and heaven seems to have sent me this man to achieve great things. The hexagram Qian speaks of 'flying dragons' and 'the wild goose gradually approaching the shore'—perhaps this is the omen." Luan Da was enfeoffed as Marquis of Leyi with two thousand households. He was granted a noble's mansion with a thousand servants, and imperial carriages, horses, curtains, and vessels to fill his household. The eldest princess of Wei was married to him, with ten thousandjin in gold, and his fief was renamed Dangli Princess.

Luan Da often performed nighttime sacrifices at his home to summon spirits. Before the spirits arrived, all manner of specters gathered, but he could control them. He then prepared his belongings and traveled eastward by sea to seek his master. In the months that followed, he wore six seals and was honored throughout the realm. Along the coasts of Yan and Qi, everyone clutched their chests and claimed to possess secret methods and the power of immortality.

The emperor then performed the suburban sacrifice at Yong, reached Longxi, climbed Mount Kongtong in the west, and visited Ganquan. He ordered the temple official Kuan Shu and others to prepare an altar for the Grand Unity (Taiyi). The altar was modeled after the Taiyi altar of Bo Ji, with three layers of steps. Altars for the Five Emperors encircled it below, each placed according to its respective direction, with the Yellow Emperor's altar to the southwest. Eight spirit paths were opened for communication with the ghosts and gods. The offerings used for the Grand Unity were the same as those for a single altar at Yong, with the addition of sweet wine, jujube, dried meat, and the like; one yak was slaughtered as the principal sacrificial animal for the vessels. For the Five Emperors, only the vessels and sweet wine were presented.

Below, on the square ground, food and drink were set out for the host of spirits, their attendants, and the Northern Dipper. After the sacrifice, all the remaining offerings were burned. The sacrificial ox was white; a deer was placed inside it, a pig inside the deer, and water was poured over them until soaked. For the sacrifice to the sun, an ox was used; for the moon, a sheep and a pig were used separately. The invocator and butcher of Taiyi wore purple and embroidered robes; each of the Five Emperors appeared in his proper color—the sun red, the moon white. On the first day of the eleventh month, which fell on the winter solstice and a new moon, at the first light of dawn, the Son of Heaven began the suburban worship of Taiyi. In the morning he worshipped the sun, in the evening the moon, with a bow; when he met Taiyi, the rite followed the ceremony of Yong. The attendant praised the offering, saying: “Heaven first gave the precious tripod and divine plan to the emperor; new moon follows new moon, ending and beginning again. The emperor reverently worships and presents himself.” And his upper garment was yellow.

At the sacrifice, flames filled the altar, and beside it were vessels for cooking the offerings. The officials reported: “There is a radiance above the sacrificial site.” The nobles said: “When the emperor first performed the suburban sacrifice to Taiyi at Yunyang, the officials presented fine jade and excellent victims as offerings. That night there was a beautiful glow, and by day a yellow vapour rose to the sky.” The Grand Historian and the sacrifice official Kuan Shu and others said: “This is a blessing of the spirits, bringing good fortune and auspicious signs. We should establish an altar to Taiyi at this place where the light appeared, to manifest the spiritual response.” They ordered the Grand Invocator to take charge, to sacrifice in autumn and in the twelfth month, and once every three years the emperor would personally perform the suburban sacrifice.

The "Song" says: "From the hall to the foundation, from the sheep to the oxen; the great ding and the small zi—no fear, no resistance, how excellent the longevity." Now the tripod has come to Ganquan, its luster moist, its transformations like those of dragons, receiving endless blessings. United with this central mountain, yellow and white clouds descend like canopies, as if beasts were omens, bows drawn and arrows loosed, gathering at the altar below for the great feast. Only the emperor who received the mandate understands its meaning and aligns with its virtue. The tripod should appear before the ancestral altars and be stored in the imperial court to match the clear omen. The decree responded: "Approved."

Those who sought Penglai by sea claimed it was not far distant, yet those who could not reach it probably failed to perceive its vapor. The emperor therefore sent observers skilled in reading omens to watch for such vapor.

The emperor approved this and ordered the nobles to discuss it. They said: “Even folk sacrifices have the music of drums and dance. Now our suburban sacrifice has no music – how can that be fitting?” The nobles replied: “In ancient times, sacrifices to Heaven and Earth all had music, so that the spirits could be properly honoured.” Someone related: “Thearch Tai sent the Plain Maiden to play a fifty-string se. Its sound was so sorrowful that the emperor could not stop his grief, so he broke the se into a twenty-five-string instrument.” Thereupon, after subduing Nanyue, they prayed and sacrificed to Taiyi and Houtu, and for the first time used music and dance. They increasingly recruited boy singers, and from this time the twenty-five-string se and the konghou harp were made.

Qing wished to present this through his patron Suo Zhong, but Suo Zhong, finding the document unreliable and suspecting it was fabricated, declined: "The matter of the tripod is already settled—what need is there for this?" Qing then had a favorite present it to the court. The emperor was delighted and questioned Qing, who answered: "I received this writing from Shen Gong, who is already dead." "Who was Shen Gong?" asked the emperor. Qing replied: "Shen Gong was a man of Qi. He corresponded with Anqi Sheng and received Huangdi's teachings. He left no writings except this tripod text, which says: 'When Han arose, it would be as in Huangdi's time. The sage among Han's descendants—in the grandson or great-grandson of the Gaozu—would find the tripod, and through it communicate with the spirits. The Feng and Shan sacrifices have been performed by seventy-two kings, but only Huangdi succeeded in ascending Mount Tai for the Feng."

"Shen Gong said: 'The Han ruler too should perform the Feng, and upon completing it, ascend to heaven like Huangdi. In Huangdi's time there were ten thousand feudal lords, but the spiritual seals numbered seven thousand. Of the eight famous mountains, three lie among the barbarians and five in China. Those in China are Huashan, Shoushan, Taishi, Taishan, and Donglai—mountains Huangdi frequently visited and where he met with spirits. Huangdi both fought and pursued immortality. When he worried that the common people might revile his teachings, he executed those who opposed the spirits. Only after more than a century did he achieve communion with the spirits."

"Huangdi sacrificed at Yong to the Supreme Di, staying three months. Gui Yuqu, called Great Hong, died and was buried at Yong—hence the name Hongzhong for his tomb. Afterward Huangdi convoked all the spirits at the Bright Court, which is Ganquan. The so-called Cold Gate is Gujiao. Huangdi smelted copper from Shoushan and cast a tripod at the foot of Mount Jing. When the tripod was completed, a dragon descended with hanging whiskers to receive Huangdi. Huangdi mounted it, and more than seventy of his ministers and consorts followed. The dragon then ascended. The remaining attendants, unable to board, clutched the dragon's whiskers, but the whiskers tore away and fell, along with Huangdi's bow. The people below, watching Huangdi ascend to heaven, embraced his bow and the dragon's whiskers and wept. Hence later generations named that place Dinghu and his bow Wuhao."

The emperor then declared: "Alas! If I could truly become like Huangdi, I would regard leaving my wife and children as casually as discarding a sandal!" He appointed Qing as a Lang officer and sent him eastward to watch for spirits at the Grand Chamber.

The emperor then conducted the suburban sacrifice at Yong, passed through Longxi, and climbed Kongtong before arriving at Ganquan. He commanded the Director of Sacrifices Kuan Shu and others to prepare the Taiyi altar—modeled after the altars of the Recluse. The altar had three levels, with the Five Emperors' altars surrounding it below, each positioned according to its direction. Huangdi's altar stood in the southwest, opening an eightfold passage to the spirit roads. The offerings to Taiyi followed those of the Yong single altar, supplemented by sweet wine, dried dates, and preserved fruits, with a yak sacrificed to provide ritual vessels and offering dishes. The Five Emperors received only the dishes and sweet wine. The surrounding lands were set with food offerings for the various spirits, the Followers, and the Northern Dipper.

After the sacrifice, the remains were burned. The ox was white, with deer enclosed within and a pig within the deer, soaked with water. The sun was sacrificed with an ox, the moon with a sheep or pig. The chief cook for Taiyi wore purple robes embroidered with patterns, while the Five Emperors each wore their designated colors—red for the sun, white for the moon.

He ordered the feudal lords each to build a lodging at the foot of Mount Tai. After the emperor had performed the Feng and Shan sacrifices on Mount Tai and there had been no storms or calamities, the fangshi again said that the divine mountains of Penglai might be within reach. Delighted, the emperor hoped to meet the immortals, so he once again went east to gaze over the sea, longing to encounter Penglai. The official in charge of the imperial carriages, Zihou, suddenly fell ill and died within a day. The emperor then departed, following the coast north to Jieshi, touring Liaoxi, and passing through the northern frontier to Jiuyuan. In the fifth month, he returned to Ganquan Palace.

The Grand Historiographer and the Director of Sacrifices Kuan Shu said: "The spirits' favor brings blessed fortune and auspicious signs. It is fitting to erect a Tai altar here to make the response clear." Orders were given that the Chief Sobsequent would conduct the sacrifice in autumn and winter, with the emperor personally attending every three years.

That winter, Gongsun Qing watched for spirits at Henan and saw immortal footprints on the walls of Goushi city, with a creature like a pheasant moving about on the walls. The emperor personally visited Goushi to examine the footprints. "Are you not imitating Wencheng and the General of Five Benefits?" he asked. Qing replied: "Immortals do not seek the ruler; the ruler seeks them. The Way does not permit shortcuts—without extended austerities, the spirits will not come. Matters of the spirits seem absurd and fantastical; only after accumulated years can they be achieved." Thereupon the various commanderies and kingdoms all cleared roads and repaired palaces and temples at famous mountains and spirit shrines, awaiting the imperial visit.

The following winter, the emperor deliberated: "In ancient times, one first strengthened military forces and toured the frontier, then performed the Feng and Shan." He therefore conducted a northern tour through Shuofang, reviewed more than one hundred thousand troops, and returned to offer sacrifice at the tomb of the Yellow Emperor at Qiaoshan. The troops assembled at Xuru. The emperor said: "I have heard that Huangdi did not die—why then is there a tomb?" Someone replied: "Huangdi ascended to heaven as an immortal, and his ministers buried his robes and crown." Upon arriving at Ganquan, because the Mount Tai sacrifice was imminent, he first offered preliminary sacrifices to Taiyi.

Gongsun Qing, bearing a tally, usually traveled ahead to scout the famous mountains. At Donglai he reported seeing a person at night, several zhang tall. When approached, the figure vanished, though the footprints remained—very large, resembling animal tracks. The ministers also reported seeing an old man leading a dog who said, "I wish to see the Great Lord," then suddenly disappeared. The emperor, having seen the great footprints, was not yet convinced. When the ministers reported seeing the old man, he firmly believed them to be immortals. He stayed at the seashore, sending carriages and agents with the alchemists—several thousand in all—seeking immortals.

He went east to the seacoast and investigated the ventures to sea and the fangshi seeking deities; none proved effective, yet he dispatched even more, hoping to encounter them. In the eleventh month, on the yiyou day, the Boliang Terrace caught fire. On the first day of the twelfth month, a jiawu day, the emperor personally performed the Shan sacrifice at Mount Gaoli, offering to Houtu. Approaching the Bohai Sea, he planned to gaze afar and sacrifice to the immortal mountains such as Penglai, hoping to reach that extraordinary realm. The emperor returned, and on account of the Boliang Terrace fire, he held court at the Ganquan Palace to receive the regional accounts. Gongsun Qing said: 'The Yellow Emperor built the Qingling Terrace; it burned down after twelve days, and the Yellow Emperor then ruled from the Mingting court.'

When the rites concluded, the emperor alone, with the attendant Zhongshi and the Prince of Qi who bore the title of his carriage, ascended Mount Tai, where another Feng was performed. Those matters were kept secret. The following day, he descended by the northern road. On the bingle day, he performed the Shan at the foot of Mount Tai at Suoran mountain in the northeast, following the ceremony for sacrificing to Earth. The emperor performed all the bows himself, wearing yellow robes, and music was fully employed.

During the Feng and Shan sacrifices, there seemed to be light at night, and by day, white clouds rose from within the Feng enclosure. Upon returning from the Feng and Shan, the emperor sat in the Bright Hall, and the ministers offered congratulations. Thereupon he issued an edict to the Censor: "I, in my insignificance, have inherited the supreme position, trembling with fear lest I prove unequal to the task. My virtue is meager and I am not accomplished in rites and music. In revising the sacrifices to Taiyi, there seemed to be splendid light, with a sense of hope—venerably frightening in the presence of the marvels. I dared not halt, and so ascended the Feng at Mount Tai, then performed the Shan at Liangfu. I am resolved to reform and to begin anew with my officials and gentlemen. Each hundred households receives an ox and ten jars of wine; those over eighty years old, along with orphans, receive two bolts of cloth. The counties of Bo, Fenggao, Sheqiu, and Licheng are exempt from this year's taxes and levies. Amnesties are granted throughout the realm, following the amnesty of the yimao year. Affairs from two years prior are not to be heard. Furthermore: 'In ancient times, the Son of Heaven toured the realm every five years, and sacrificed at Mount Tai, where the feudal lords had their lodging estates.' Let the feudal lords each establish their lodges at the foot of Mount Tai."

Having completed the Feng and Shan at Mount Tai, there was no wind or rain, and the alchemists again claimed that Penglai and the other divine mountains might be reached. The emperor, pleased and hopeful, traveled eastward again to gaze out over the sea, hoping to encounter Penglai. Prince Feng, riding in the imperial carriage, suddenly fell ill and died within a day. The emperor then departed, traveling along the coast, northward to Jieshi, then through western Liaoxi, along the northern frontier to Jiuyuan. In the fifth month, he returned to Ganquan.

The Son of Heaven had already ordered the sacrificial utensils prepared and arrived at Mount Dongtai. The mountain was low and insignificant, not matching its reputation, so he directed the ritual officials to worship it according to the rites, but not to perform the grand Feng and Shan ceremonies. Afterward, he ordered attendants to bring offerings and await supernatural beings. In summer, he returned to Mount Tai, performed the five-year rites as before, and added a Shan sacrifice at Shilü. Shilü was at the southern foot of Mount Tai; many fangshi claimed it was the dwelling of immortals, so the emperor personally sacrificed there. Five years later, he again went to Mount Tai to practice the Feng, and on his return he stopped to sacrifice at Mount Chang.

The sacrifices established by the present emperor are those to Taiyi and Houtu; he personally performs the suburban sacrifice every three years, and created the Han dynasty's Feng and Shan sacrifices, renewing the Feng every five years. In addition, there are sacrifices to Taiyi of Bo Ji, Sanyi, Mingyang, Maxing, and Chixing—five shrines served by the ritual officials of Kuanshu, who present offerings at the appropriate seasons. Altogether, six sacrifices are under the direction of the Grand Invocator. As for the Eight Spirits and various other deities, as well as Mingnian Mountain and other named shrines, he sacrifices when he passes by, and ceases when he departs. Sacrifices initiated by fangshi are each supervised by themselves; when the person dies, the rites end, and the ritual officials do not take charge. All other sacrifices remain as they were. After performing the Feng and Shan, the present emperor spent twelve years before returning, and by then his sacrifices had covered all the Five Marchmounts and the Four Great Waterways.

The following spring, Gongsun Qing reported seeing an immortal at Donglai mountain, as if saying "See the Son of Heaven." The emperor thereupon visited Goushi city and appointed Qing as Zhongdafu. He then went to Donglai and stayed several days but saw nothing except the great footprints. He again dispatched alchemists—over a thousand in number—to seek spirits and gather mushrooms and herbs. That year was one of drought. When the emperor had left the capital without formal announcement, he prayed at Wanli Sand and sacrificed at Mount Tai. Returning, he visited Huzi, personally overseeing the river breach. He stayed two days, offered sacrifices, and departed. He sent two ministers to dam the breach. The river was diverted into two channels, restoring the former course of Yu's works.

At this time, after the destruction of Nanyue, a Yue man named Yongzhi reported: "The Yue people have long believed in spirits, and their sacrifices have frequently involved appearances of ghosts, with consistent results. Formerly, the King of Eastern Ou revered the spirits, and lived to be a hundred and sixty years. Later generations were disrespectful and negligent, so their fortunes declined and dwindled." He therefore ordered Yue sorcerers to establish sacrificial altars, with platforms but no ceremonial mounds, sacrificing to the heavenly spirits, the Supreme Deity, and various ghosts, using chicken divination. The Emperor put faith in this, and chicken divination thus began to be practiced in Yue sacrifices.

Hereafter, gentlemen may peruse it.

At this time, after the destruction of Nanyue, a Yue man named Yongzhi reported: "The Yue people have long believed in spirits, and their sacrifices have frequently involved appearances of ghosts, with consistent results. Formerly, the King of Eastern Ou revered the spirits, and lived to be a hundred and sixty years. Later generations were disrespectful and negligent, so their fortunes declined and dwindled." He therefore ordered Yue sorcerers to establish sacrificial altars, with platforms but no ceremonial mounds, sacrificing to the heavenly spirits, the Supreme Deity, and various ghosts, using chicken divination. The Emperor put faith in this, and chicken divination thus began to be practiced in Yue sacrifices.