儒林列传

The Grand Historian said: When I read the official regulations concerning the expansion of the paths for encouraging scholarship at the Imperial Academy, I could not help setting the book aside and sighing. Alas! When the Zhou dynasty declined, the "Guanju" was composed; when the reigns of You and Li became corrupt, rites and music fell into disrepair, and the lords acted arbitrarily while government affairs were controlled by the powerful states. Kongzi mourned the abandonment of the true royal way and the rise of crooked doctrines, and therefore compiled and arranged the Odes and Documents, restored and revived rites and music. In Qi he heard the Shao music and for three months did not taste the flavor of meat. Upon returning from Wei to Lu, he finally rectified the music, so that the Elegantiae and the Hymns each found their proper place. The world had grown so chaotic that no one could make use of him, and thus Kongzi sought employment with over seventy princes but met with no success, saying, "If anyone would employ me, in a single year I could accomplish much." When the western hunt produced a unicorn, he declared, "My way has reached its end." He therefore based himself on the historical records to compose the Spring and Autumn Annals to serve as the royal code. Its language was subtle but its scope vast, and later scholars have recorded it extensively.

After Kongzi's death, the seventy disciples dispersed throughout the various states. The more prominent became teachers and ministers to lords; the lesser ones befriended and taught scholar-officials. Some withdrew from public life entirely. Thus Zilu resided in Wei, Zi Zhang in Chen, Tantai Ziyu in Chu, Zi Xia on the western bank of the Yellow River, and Zigong finally died in Qi. Figures such as Tian Zifang, Duan Ganmu, Wu QiWu QiThe reformer who died for his reforms.A brilliant military reformer who created the first standing army and served three states, only to be assassinated by the nobles he dispossessed.View profile →, and Qin Huali, among others, all studied under followers of Zi Xia, and became teachers to kings. At that time only Lord Wen of Wei delighted in learning. As the situation gradually deteriorated until it reached the time of the First Emperor, the world was torn by the Warring States, and Confucian teachings were rejected—yet among the states of Lu and Qi alone, scholars never abandoned their work.

After Kongzi's death, the seventy disciples dispersed throughout the various states. The more prominent became teachers and ministers to lords; the lesser ones befriended officials and grand masters. Some withdrew from public life entirely. Thus Zilu resided in Wei, Zi Zhang in Chen, Tantai Ziyu in Chu, Zi Xia on the western bank of the Yellow River, and Zigong finally died in Qi. Figures such as Tian Zifang, Duan Ganmu, Wu QiWu QiThe reformer who died for his reforms.A brilliant military reformer who created the first standing army and served three states, only to be assassinated by the nobles he dispossessed.View profile →, and Qin Huali, among others, all studied under followers of Zi Xia, and became teachers to kings. At that time only Lord Wen of Wei delighted in learning. As the situation gradually deteriorated, by the time of the First Emperor the world was torn by the Warring States, and Confucian teachings were rejected. Yet in the states of Lu and Qi alone, scholars never abandoned their work.

During the reigns of King Wei and King Xuan, Mencius and Xun Qing stood among their generation, all adhering to the master's legacy and embellishing it, thereby making their learning renowned in their time. When the Qin dynasty reached its final period, it burned the Odes and Documents and buried the scholars alive; the Six Arts were forever incomplete thereafter. When Chen She proclaimed himself king, the scholars of Lu, bearing the ritual vessels of the Kong family, went to submit to King Chen. Kong Jia thus became Chen She's Doctor, and eventually died together with him. Chen She rose from the ranks of commoners, rallying a band of conscripts, and within a month made himself king of Chu; less than half a year later he was destroyed. His enterprise was truly insignificant—yet why did so many dignified scholars carrying Kongzi's ritual vessels go to him, surrender their allegiance, and become his ministers? Because the Qin had destroyed their livelihoods, and their accumulated resentment found vent in their support for Chen She.

When Emperor Gaozu executed Xiang YuXiang YuHere's the translation of "The Warrior Who Almost Ruled the World" into English: **The Warrior Who Almost Ruled the World**The most feared warrior in Chinese history — brilliant in battle, catastrophic in politics — whose stubborn nobility cost him an empire.View profile → and led his forces to surround Lu, the scholars in Lu were still discussing and reciting the classics, maintaining the rituals and music, with the sound of strings and singing never ceasing. Was this not the lingering influence of the sage, those lands that cherished rites and music? Thus Kongzi, when in Chen, had said, "Return, return! The young men of my school are ambitious and hasty, their writing flows with ornament, but they do not know how to discipline themselves." As for aptitude in literature, the people of Lu and Qi had possessed it since ancient times—this was simply their natural disposition.

When Emperor Gaozu executed Xiang YuXiang YuHere's the translation of "The Warrior Who Almost Ruled the World" into English: **The Warrior Who Almost Ruled the World**The most feared warrior in Chinese history — brilliant in battle, catastrophic in politics — whose stubborn nobility cost him an empire.View profile → and led his forces to surround Lu, the scholars in Lu were still discussing and reciting the classics, maintaining the rituals and music, with the sound of strings and singing never ceasing. Was this not the lingering influence of the sage, those lands that cherished rites and music? Thus Kongzi, when in Chen, had said, "Return, return! The young men of my school are ambitious and hasty, their writing flows with ornament, but they do not know how to discipline themselves." As for aptitude in literature, the people of Lu and Qi had possessed it since ancient times—this was simply their natural disposition.

When the Han rose to power, the scholars finally had the opportunity to cultivate their classical studies and discuss the rituals of the great archery ceremony and village drinking ceremonies. Shusun Tong composed the Han ritual codes, for which he was made Grand Minister of Ceremonies. The disciples and students he had gathered together for the purpose were all selected as the foremost, and he sighed with emotion at the flourishing of learning. However, there was still warfare; the emperor was occupied with pacifying the realm and had no leisure for the affairs of the academies. During the reigns of Emperor Hui and Empress Dowager Lü, the high officials were all military men who had achieved merit. Emperor Wen made some use of scholars, but his natural inclinations ran toward legalist writings. By Emperor Jing's time, no Confucian scholars were employed, and Empress Dou was fond of the teachings of the Yellow Emperor and Laozi. The various Doctors therefore held their posts merely as ornament, awaiting questions that never came.

When the present Emperor ascended the throne, Zhao Wan, Wang Zang, and others promoted Confucian learning, and the Emperor also inclined toward it. He therefore summoned upright, talented, and learned men. From this time onward, those who explicated the Odes in Lu were Master Shen Pei; in Qi, Yuan Gu Sheng; in Yan, the Grand Tutor Han. For the Documents, there was Fu Sheng of Jinan. For rites, the Scholar Gao Tang Sheng of Lu. For the Changes, the Scholar Tian Sheng of Zichuan. For the Spring and Autumn Annals, in Lu and Qi there was Hu Wu Sheng; in Zhao, Dong Zhongshu. When Empress Dowager Dou died, Tian Fen became Chancellor, and he rejected the Yellow Emperor, Laozi, and the various hundred schools of thought, welcoming hundreds of literary scholars. Gong Sun Hong, who had come from modest circumstances, was appointed a Minister of the Three Grades and enfeoffed as the Marquis of Pingjin on account of his mastery of the Spring and Autumn Annals. Scholars throughout the empire thereupon turned toward learning in overwhelming numbers.

When the present Emperor ascended the throne, Zhao Wan, Wang Zang, and others promoted Confucian learning, and the Emperor also inclined toward it. He therefore summoned upright, talented, and learned men. From this time onward, those who explicated the Odes in Lu were Master Shen Pei; in Qi, Yuan Gu Sheng; in Yan, the Grand Tutor Han. For the Documents, there was Fu Sheng of Jinan. For rites, the Scholar Gao Tang Sheng of Lu. For the Changes, the Scholar Tian Sheng of Zichuan. For the Spring and Autumn Annals, in Lu and Qi there was Hu Wu Sheng; in Zhao, Dong Zhongshu. When Empress Dowager Dou died, Tian Fen became Chancellor, and he rejected the Yellow Emperor, Laozi, and the various hundred schools of thought, welcoming hundreds of literary scholars. Gong Sun Hong, who had come from modest circumstances, was appointed a Minister of the Three Grades and enfeoffed as the Marquis of Pingjin on account of his mastery of the Spring and Autumn Annals. Scholars throughout the empire thereupon turned toward learning in overwhelming numbers.

When the present Emperor ascended the throne, Zhao Wan, Wang Zang, and others promoted Confucian learning, and the Emperor also inclined toward it. He therefore summoned upright, talented, and learned men. From this time onward, those who explicated the Odes in Lu were Master Shen Pei; in Qi, Yuan Gu Sheng; in Yan, the Grand Tutor Han. For the Documents, there was Fu Sheng of Jinan. For rites, the Scholar Gao Tang Sheng of Lu. For the Changes, the Scholar Tian Sheng of Zichuan. For the Spring and Autumn Annals, in Lu and Qi there was Hu Wu Sheng; in Zhao, Dong Zhongshu. When Empress Dowager Dou died, Tian Fen became Chancellor, and he rejected the Yellow Emperor, Laozi, and the various hundred schools of thought, welcoming hundreds of literary scholars. Gong Sun Hong, who had come from modest circumstances, was appointed a Minister of the Three Grades and enfeoffed as the Marquis of Pingjin on account of his mastery of the Spring and Autumn Annals. Scholars throughout the empire thereupon turned toward learning in overwhelming numbers.

When the present Emperor ascended the throne, Zhao Wan, Wang Zang, and others promoted Confucian learning, and the Emperor also inclined toward it. He therefore summoned upright, talented, and learned men. From this time onward, those who explicated the Odes in Lu were Master Shen Pei; in Qi, Yuan Gu Sheng; in Yan, the Grand Tutor Han. For the Documents, there was Fu Sheng of Jinan. For rites, the Scholar Gao Tang Sheng of Lu. For the Changes, the Scholar Tian Sheng of Zichuan. For the Spring and Autumn Annals, in Lu and Qi there was Hu Wu Sheng; in Zhao, Dong Zhongshu. When Empress Dowager Dou died, Tian Fen became Chancellor, and he rejected the Yellow Emperor, Laozi, and the various hundred schools of thought, welcoming hundreds of literary scholars. Gong Sun Hong, who had come from modest circumstances, was appointed a Minister of the Three Grades and enfeoffed as the Marquis of Pingjin on account of his mastery of the Spring and Autumn Annals. Scholars throughout the empire thereupon turned toward learning in overwhelming numbers.

Gong Sun Hong, as Director of the Academy, grieved that the correct way was obstructed, and therefore petitioned: "The Chancellor and Imperial Counselor have stated: The decree reads: 'We have heard that to guide the people one should use rites and instruct them with music. Marriage is the great principle of domestic harmony. Now that rites have fallen into disuse and music has collapsed, We are greatly grieved. Therefore We broadly summon upright and widely learned men of the realm to appear at court. Let the officials of rites be commanded to encourage learning, to discuss and make widely known matters of ritual, to set an example for all under heaven. The Grand Minister of Ceremonies shall discuss this with the Doctors and their disciples, to promote education in the countryside and broaden the cultivation of worthy talent.' The humble officials have carefully examined the imperial decree, the statutes and ordinances: their language is elegant, their instructions profound, and their bounty reaches far. Junior officials of limited understanding cannot fully explicate them or clearly disseminate them to those below. The secondary rank deals with ritual, and the tertiary rank with precedent, but those who take as their official duties literature and rites and propriety cannot advance and remain stuck in their positions. We request that those whose rank is two hundred piculs or above, and officials of one hundred piculs who have mastered one classic, be selected to fill the positions of Chief Clerk in the Left and Right Commandries and the Chief Messenger; those below one hundred piculs shall fill the positions of District Clerk in the commanderies. Two shall be appointed for each area, and one for frontier commanderies. Priority shall be given to those who have recited the most—if there are insufficient candidates, then the secondary rank of two thousand piculs shall provide officials from among those who know precedent, and the tertiary rank shall fill the positions in the commanderies, making up the required numbers. We request that this be recorded in the official regulations. Let all other matters follow the statutes." The decree responded: "Approved."

From this time forward, the various ranks of officials were increasingly populated with men of literary accomplishment. Shen Gong was a native of Lu. When Gaozu passed through Lu, Shen Gong, as a disciple, accompanied his teacher to meet Gaozu at the Southern Palace of Lu. During Empress Dowager Lü's time, Shen Gong went to study in Chang'an, where he studied alongside Liu Yi. When Yi later became King of Chu, he commanded Shen Gong to serve as tutor to his heir apparent, Wu. Wu did not love learning and hated Shen Gong. When King Yi died and Wu ascended the throne as King of Chu, he had Shen Gong put in prison. Shen Gong considered this shameful and returned to Lu, where he retired to teach at home, never leaving for the rest of his life. He also refused visitors, accepting only summons from the king. His disciples who came from distant places to study numbered over a hundred. Shen Gong taught exclusively through the Odes, providing commentary but no extended treatises; passages he found uncertain he simply left unexplained. When Wang Zang of Lanling had completed his study of the Odes, he served Emperor Jing as Junior Tutor to the Crown Prince, then left that post. When the present Emperor first ascended the throne, Wang Zang petitioned to serve as a palace guard; he was repeatedly promoted and within a year became Superintendent of the Palace. Meanwhile, Zhao Wan of Dai had also studied the Odes under Shen Gong and became Imperial Counsellor. Zhao Wan and Wang Zang requested of the Emperor that a Bright Hall be established for receiving the vassals, but when this could not be accomplished, they spoke of their teacher Shen Gong. The Emperor therefore sent envoys with silk offerings and jade, together with an elegant four-horse carriage, to invite Shen Gong. Two disciples accompanied him by swift carriage. When he met the Emperor, the Emperor asked about governing and disorder. Shen Gong was already over eighty and, being old, replied: "Those who govern need not speak at length—what matters is how earnestly they act." The Emperor, at that time fond of literary elegance, heard this silence with displeasure. Yet since he had already summoned him, he made Shen Gong a Grand Master of the Palace and lodged him in the Lu residence to discuss the matter of the Bright Hall. The Empress Dowager Dou was fond of Laozi's writings and disliked Confucian methods. She found fault with Zhao Wan and Wang Zang and remonstrated with the Emperor, who thereupon abandoned the Bright Hall project. He demoted Zhao Wan and Wang Zang to lesser posts, and both eventually took their own lives. Shen Gong also retired in disgrace and returned home, where he died several years later. More than ten of his disciples became Doctors, including Kong Anguo, who became Commandant of Linhuai; Zhou Ba, who became Internal Secretary of Jiaoxi; Xia Kuan, who became Internal Secretary of Chengyang; Lu Ci of Dang, who became Commandant of Donghai; Miaosheng of Lanling, who became Internal Secretary of Changsha; Xu Yan, who became Central Officer of Jiaoxi; and Quemen Qingji of Zou, who became Internal Secretary of Jiaodong. Their administration of their offices showed incorruptibility, and they were praised for their love of learning. Although the students of the Academy did not all achieve complete virtue, dozens of them nevertheless rose to the ranks of dafu and palace attendants. Though various teachers taught the Odes in different ways, most traced their scholarship back to Shen Gong.

From this time onward, the high officials, ministers, and officers were increasingly drawn from men of literary accomplishment. Shen Gong was a native of Lu. When Gaozu passed through Lu, Shen Gong, as a disciple, accompanied his teacher to meet Gaozu at the Southern Palace of Lu. During Empress Dowager Lü's time, Shen Gong went to study in Chang'an, where he studied alongside Liu Yi. When Yi later became King of Chu, he commanded Shen Gong to serve as tutor to his heir apparent, Wu. Wu did not love learning and hated Shen Gong. When King Yi died and Wu ascended the throne as King of Chu, he had Shen Gong put in prison. Shen Gong considered this shameful and returned to Lu, where he retired to teach at home, never leaving for the rest of his life. He also refused visitors, accepting only summons from the king. His disciples who came from distant places to study numbered over a hundred. Shen Gong taught exclusively through the Odes, providing commentary but no extended treatises; passages he found uncertain he simply left unexplained. When Wang Zang of Lanling had completed his study of the Odes, he served Emperor Jing as Junior Tutor to the Crown Prince, then left that post. When the present Emperor first ascended the throne, Wang Zang petitioned to serve as a palace guard; he was repeatedly promoted and within a year became a palace Attendant. When Dai Zhao also studied the Odes under Shen Gong, Zhao Wan became a Doctor of the Censorate. Zhao Wan and Wang Zang requested of the Emperor that a Bright Hall be established for receiving the vassals, but when this could not be accomplished, they spoke of their teacher Shen Gong. The Emperor therefore sent envoys with silk offerings and jade, together with an elegant four-horse carriage, to invite Shen Gong. Two disciples accompanied him by swift carriage. When he met the Emperor, the Emperor asked about governing and disorder. Shen Gong, already over eighty years old, replied: "Those who govern need not speak at length—what matters is how earnestly they act." The Emperor, at that time fond of literary elegance, fell silent upon hearing this reply. Yet since he had already summoned him, he appointed Shen Gong as Grand Master of the Palace and lodged him in the Lu residence, to discuss the matter of the Bright Hall. The Empress Dowager Dou was fond of Laozi's writings and disliked Confucian methods. She seized upon faults of Zhao Wan and Wang Zang to reproach the Emperor, who thereupon abandoned the Bright Hall project. He handed Zhao Wan and Wang Zang over to the legal authorities, and both eventually took their own lives. Shen Gong was dismissed due to illness and returned home, where he died several years later. More than ten of his disciples became Doctors, including Kong Anguo, who became Commandant of Linhuai; Zhou Ba, who became Internal Secretary of Jiaoxi; Xia Kuan, who became Internal Secretary of Chengyang; Tang Luci, who became Commandant of Donghai; Lanling Miaosheng, who became Internal Secretary of Changsha; Xu Yan, who became Central Officer of Jiaoxi; and Zou Kanguan Qingji, who became Internal Secretary of Jiaodong. Their administration of their offices showed incorruptibility, and they were praised for their love of learning. Although the students of the Academy did not all achieve complete virtue, dozens of them nevertheless rose to the ranks of dafu and palace attendants. Though various teachers taught the Odes in different ways, most traced their scholarship back to Shen Gong.

Yuan Gu Sheng, the Grand Tutor of the Prince of Qinghe, was a native of Qi. He specialized in the Odes and during Emperor Jing's reign served as a Doctor. He once debated with the Yellow Emperor scholar before Emperor Jing. The Yellow Emperor scholar said: "Tang and Wu did not receive the Mandate—they committed regicide." Yuan Gu Sheng replied: "Not so. Jie and Zhou were tyrannical and chaotic, and the hearts of all under heaven turned to Tang and Wu. Tang and Wu responded to the will of the realm in punishing Jie and Zhou; the people of Jie and Zhou would not serve them but turned to Tang and Wu. Tang and Wu had no choice but to arise—was this not receiving the Mandate?" The Yellow Emperor scholar said: "A hat, however worn, must still be placed on the head; shoes, however new, must still be worn on the feet. Why? Because of the distinction between high and low. Now Jie and Zhou, though they had lost the way, were still lords; Tang and Wu, though sagely, were still subjects. When a ruler acts wrongly, the subjects should speak directly to correct his faults and thereby honor the Son of Heaven. Instead, they took advantage of his errors to execute him and usurped his southern-facing throne—is this not regicide?" Yuan Gu Sheng said: "If we must speak as you do, then was it not right that Gaozu overthrew Qin and took the imperial throne?" Emperor Jing then interjected: "One who does not eat horse liver is not thereby ignorant of good food; a scholar who does not discuss whether Tang and Wu received the Mandate is not thereby a fool." The debate was adjourned, and from that time onward, no scholar dared to discuss whether the Mandate was received or forfeited. Empress Dowager Dou was fond of Laozi's writings and summoned Yuan Gu Sheng to discuss them. Gu said: "This is merely the talk of a household, nothing more." The Empress Dowager was furious and said: "How could one find here the writings of the official who builds city walls?" She then ordered Gu into the pigpen to stab a pig. Emperor Jing knew that the Empress Dowager was angry and that Gu had spoken directly without guilt, so he gave Gu a sharp weapon. When Gu entered the pen and stabbed the pig, the blade struck its heart, and the pig fell at once. The Empress Dowager was silent, having nothing further with which to accuse him, and dismissed him. Shortly after, Emperor Jing, knowing Gu to be upright and honest, appointed him Grand Tutor of the Prince of Qinghe. After a long time, he left due to illness. When the present Emperor first ascended the throne, he again summoned Gu as a model of worth. The flatterers and mediocre scholars all envied and reviled him, calling him "old," and he was dismissed and returned home. By then Gu was already over ninety. When Gu was summoned, Xue Gong Sun Hong was also summoned, and he regarded Gu with sidelong glances. Gu said to him: "Master Sun, devote yourself to correct learning and speak without deviating from it to flatter the age!" From this time onward, all who spoke of the Odes in Qi traced their scholarship to Yuan Gu Sheng. The various people of Qi who achieved prominence through the Odes were all disciples of Gu.

Han Sheng was a native of Yan. During Emperor Wen's reign he served as a Doctor; during Emperor Jing's time he became Grand Tutor to the King of Changshan. Han Sheng elaborated the meaning of the Odes in an Inner and Outer Commentary comprising tens of thousands of characters; his language differed considerably from that of the Lu and Qi traditions, yet their conclusions were the same. The scholar Ben of Huainan received his teaching. From this time onward, those who spoke of the Odes in Yan and Zhao followed Han Sheng. Han Sheng's grandson Han Shang became a Doctor to the present Emperor.

Han Sheng was a native of Yan. During Emperor Wen's reign he served as a Doctor; during Emperor Jing's time he became Grand Tutor to the King of Changshan. Han Sheng elaborated the meaning of the Odes in an Inner and Outer Commentary comprising tens of thousands of characters; his language differed considerably from that of the Lu and Qi traditions, yet their conclusions were the same. The scholar Ben of Huainan received his teaching. From this time onward, those who spoke of the Odes in Yan and Zhao followed Han Sheng. Han Sheng's grandson Han Shang became a Doctor to the present Emperor.

Fu Sheng was a native of Jinan and had formerly been a Doctor during the Qin dynasty. During Emperor Wen's reign, the court sought someone capable of expounding the Documents, but none could be found throughout the realm. They then learned that Fu Sheng could expound it and wished to summon him. By this time Fu Sheng was over ninety years old and too old to travel, so the Emperor commanded the Grand Minister of Ceremonies to send the official Chao Cuo to receive his teaching. During the Qin period, the Documents had been burned, but Fu Sheng had hidden them in a wall. After the great upheavals that followed, when the Han was finally established, Fu Sheng searched for his books but found that dozens of scrolls had been lost. Only twenty-nine chapters remained, and he taught these in the Lu and Qi region. Scholars thereafter became quite able to discuss the Documents, and all the major masters east of the mountains were well-versed in the Documents through his teaching. Fu Sheng taught Zhang Sheng of Jinan and Ouyang Sheng, and Ouyang Sheng taught Er Kuan of Chengcheng. Er Kuan, having mastered the Documents, was recommended for his literary talent by his prefecture and came to study under the Doctors, studying with Kong Anguo. Er Kuan was poor and had no resources, so he often worked as a general servant for the other students, occasionally taking on hired work to provide for food and clothing. He constantly carried the classics with him; whenever he stopped to rest, he would study and recite. According to his examination ranking, he was appointed to serve as a clerk in the Court of Judicial Review, eventually becoming a Clerk of the Archives.

At this time, Zhang Tang was devoted to scholarship. He appointed Ni Kuan as his clerk for drafting legal opinions, consulting the ancient laws when deciding difficult criminal cases. Ni Kuan was warm-hearted and virtuous, honest and intelligent, disciplined in his conduct, and skilled at writing memorials and essays. Though eloquent in speech, he was modest. Zhang Tang regarded him as a man of maturity, and repeatedly praised him. When Zhang Tang became Grand Commandant, he made Ni Kuan his clerk and recommended him to the emperor. The emperor summoned Ni Kuan and, upon questioning him, was delighted with him. Six years after Zhang Tang's death, Ni Kuan rose to the position of Grand Commandant. Nine years later, he died in office. Though holding one of the highest positions in the government, Ni Kuan won favor through his mildness and good nature, and was able to remain long in his post by agreeing with others' wishes; yet he offered no candid counsel or criticism. His subordinates therefore held him in low regard, and he made no effort on their behalf.

Zhang Sheng also became an Erudite. Fu Sheng's grandson was summoned for his knowledge of the Book of Documents, but proved incompetent. After this, Lu Zhouba of Lu, Kong Anchang, Jia Si of Luoyang, and others were quite capable of discussing the Book of Documents. The Kong family possessed the ancient-script version of the Documents, and Anchang deciphered the modern-script version, thereby reviving the family's scholarly tradition. Some ten-odd chapters of previously lost Documents were recovered, and the Book of Documents grew increasingly abundant.

Many scholars devoted themselves to the Study of Rites, and among them Lu Gaotangsheng was the most foundational. Rites had existed since Confucius's time, but their texts were incomplete. By the time of the Qin burning of books, the texts had scattered and more were lost; only the Rites of the Scholars survived, and Gaotangsheng could explain them. Lu Xusheng was skilled at ritual deportment. During Emperor Wen's reign, Xusheng became a Grand Master of Ceremonies on account of his ritual bearing. The position passed from father to son—first to his grandson Yan, then to Xu Xiang. Xu Xiang had a natural talent for ritual deportment but could not master the ritual classics; Yan possessed considerable ability but was not accomplished. Xu Xiang served as Grand Master of Ceremonies and later as Commandant of Guangling. Yan and the other Xu disciples—Gonghu Manyi, Huan Sheng, and Dan Ci—all served as Grand Masters of Ceremonies in the Han court. Xiao Fen of Qiufu became Commandant of Huaiyang through his mastery of rites. After this, those who could discourse on rites and proper ritual form all traced their lineage to the Xu family.

From Lu Shangqu, who received the Yijing from Confucius, the teaching passed through six generations to Tian He of Qi, whose style name was Zizhuang. When the Han rose to power, Tian He transmitted the text to Wang Tong of Dongwu, whose style name was Zizhong. Wang Tong transmitted it to Yang He of Zichuan. Yang He was summoned in the first year of Yuanguang and rose to the position of Grandee. Ji Mocheng of Qi became Chancellor of Chengyang through his mastery of the Changes. Meng Dan of Guangchuan became Gate Grandee for the Crown Prince. Lu's Zhou Ba, Heng Hu of Ju, and Zhu Fuquan of Linzi all rose to positions of two thousand piculs through their knowledge of the Changes. Yet the essential teaching of the Changes derived from the household of Yang He.

From Lu Shangqu, who received the Yijing from Confucius, the teaching passed through six generations to Tian He of Qi, whose style name was Zizhuang. When the Han rose to power, Tian He transmitted the text to Wang Tong of Dongwu, whose style name was Zizhong. Wang Tong transmitted it to Yang He of Zichuan. Yang He was summoned in the first year of Yuanguang and rose to the position of Grandee. Ji Mocheng of Qi became Chancellor of Chengyang through his mastery of the Changes. Meng Dan of Guangchuan became Gate Grandee for the Crown Prince. Lu's Zhou Ba, Heng Hu of Ju, and Zhu Fuquan of Linzi all rose to positions of two thousand piculs through their knowledge of the Changes. Yet the essential teaching of the Changes derived from the household of Yang He.

Dong Zhongshu was from Guangchuan. He studied the Spring and Autumn Annals and, during Emperor Jing's reign, was appointed Erudite. He taught from behind a curtain, his disciples receiving instruction in turn according to their seniority; some never saw his face. For three years Dong Zhongshu did not go out to the garden— such was his concentration. In his movements and stillness, nothing contravened ritual, and all who studied under him held him in reverence.

At that time, the Eastern Ancestral Temple in Liaodong caught fire. Zhu Fuquan, who resented Dong Zhongshu, seized his writings and presented them to the emperor. The emperor assembled the scholars and showed them the work. They found in it passages of criticism and satire. Dong's own disciple Lü Busu did not know the book was his teacher's and declared it the ravings of a fool. Dong was handed over for prosecution, facing the death penalty, but received a imperial pardon. From then on, Dong Zhongshu dared not speak further of disasters and prodigies.

Dong Zhongshu was honest and forthright. At that time the empire was vigorously driving back the barbarians on all frontiers. Gongsun Hong, who studied the Spring and Autumn Annals, was no match for Dong Zhongshu, yet Gongsun Hong was skilled at navigating public opinion and rose to the position of High Duke. Dong Zhongshu regarded Gongsun Hong as a sycophant. Gongsun Hong resented him and said to the emperor: "Only Dong Zhongshu is fit to serve as Minister to the King of Western Yan." The King of Jiaoxi had long heard of Dong Zhongshu's conduct and treated him well. Dong Zhongshu, fearing prolonged punishment, feigned illness and returned home. Until his death, he never took up official duties or accumulated property, but devoted himself entirely to study and writing.

Thus, from the founding of the Han until five generations later, only Dong Zhongshu was truly renowned for his mastery of the Spring and Autumn Annals—specifically its Gongyang transmission. Humu Sheng was from Qi. During Emperor Jing's reign he was appointed Erudite, then returned home to teach. Many scholars of the Spring and Autumn Annals in Qi received instruction from Humu Sheng, including Gongsun Hong, who also studied under him. Qiufuling Jiang Sheng specialized in the Gu Liang commentary. When Gongsun Hong came to power, he compared the various commentaries and finally adopted the Gongyang interpretation of Dong Zhongshu.

Among Dong Zhongshu's notable disciples were Chu Da of Lanling, Yin Zhong of Guangchuan, and Lü Busu of Wen. Chu Da became Chancellor of Liang. Lü Busu rose to become Chief Clerk, and was sent with a token of authority to adjudicate the case of Huainan, where he rendered judgments independently among the princes without awaiting imperial approval, deciding the case according to the principles of the Spring and Autumn Annals—and the emperor approved all his decisions. Among Dong's disciples who achieved distinction, scores rose to the rank of grandee or were appointed as palace attendants and recordkeepers. Dong Zhongshu's sons and grandsons all rose to high office through their learning.

The Kong family fell into decline, and the classical texts fell into confusion. The study of the Six Arts began anew in the flourishing Han. Edicts established offices, and from every direction scholars came flocking. The libraries crumbled, yet the crown of learning endured. The transmission of the Changes and the Songs spread like clouds and mist. Great virtue flourished, and the realm achieved good governance—glorious indeed were these accomplishments.

Among Dong Zhongshu's disciples who achieved distinction were Chu Da of Lanling, Yin Zhong of Guangchuan, and Lü Bushu of Wen. Chu Da rose to become Chancellor of Liang. Lü Bushu became Chief Clerk and was dispatched bearing the imperial tally to adjudicate legal cases in Huainan; when feudal lords arbitrarily imposed punishments, he did not report to the court but set matters right according to the principles of the Spring and Autumn Annals, and the emperors all approved his judgments. Many of Dong's disciples who mastered the classics attained the rank of appointed Grand Master; over a hundred served as Gentlemen of the Palace, Receptionists, and Keepers of Ancient Affairs. Dong Zhongshu's sons and grandsons all reached high office through their learning. As the teaching of Confucius declined, the classical canons fell into disorder.

The study of the Six Classics began under the glorious Han. The dynasty issued edicts and established official posts, drawing scholars from all quarters to flock to the center.

Though the Qu Tai Hall lay in ruins and its walls crumbled, the canons of Documents and Rites remained paramount. The Changes were transmitted and the Odes expounded, their teachings spreading like clouds rising and mists dispersing.

Promote moral transformation to bring about perfect order; thus the great design can be fulfilled.