大宛列传 — Shiji

The story of Dayuan begins with Zhang Qian. Zhang Qian was a native of Hanzhong. During the Jianyuan reign period, he was appointed as a court gentleman. At that time the Emperor questioned Xiongnu defectors, who all said that the Xiongnu had defeated the king of the Yuezhi and used his skull as a drinking cup. The Yuezhi had fled and nursed a lasting grudge against the Xiongnu, but had no allies to help them strike back. The Han court, preparing to destroy the Xiongnu, heard this account and decided to send envoys to the Yuezhi. Since the route would certainly pass through Xiongnu territory, the court sought volunteers for this dangerous mission. Zhang Qian, then a court gentleman, answered the call to serve as an envoy to the Yuezhi. He set out from Longxi together with a Hun slave named Ganfu from the Tangyi clan.

They traveled westward but were captured by the Xiongnu, who brought Zhang Qian before the Chanyu. The Chanyu detained him, saying, "The Yuezhi are north of me. Why should the Han send envoys to them? If I sent envoys to the south, would the Han permit it?" He kept Zhang Qian imprisoned for over ten years, during which Zhang Qian married and had children, yet he never abandoned his Han emblems of office.

As time passed, Zhang Qian found his circumstances growing more lenient, and he managed to escape with his subordinates, heading westward toward the Yuezhi. After traveling for several dozen days, they reached Dayuan. The Dayuan people, who had long desired trade with wealthy Han, welcomed Zhang Qian gladly and asked, "Where are you headed?" Zhang Qian replied, "I am traveling as a Han envoy to the Yuezhi, but the Xiongnu have blocked my route. Now I have escaped, and only if Your Majesty provides guides to escort me can I complete my mission. If I truly reach my destination and return to Han, the wealth and treasures the Han would bestow upon Your Majesty would be beyond description." The Dayuan ruler found this reasoning sound, so he sent Zhang Qian on his way with guides and escorts. Through Kangju, Zhang Qian eventually arrived at Greater Yuezhi.

He remained with the Xiongnu for over a year until the Chanyu died. The Left Guli King attacked and seized the throne from the rightful heir, plunging the realm into chaos. Seizing this opportunity, Zhang Qian escaped with his Xiongnu wife and Ganfu, finally returning to Han.

The Emperor appointed Zhang Qian as Grand Secretary and Ganfu as Chief Envoy. Zhang Qian was a man of great strength and integrity, generous and trustworthy, qualities that earned him the affection of the frontier peoples. Ganfu, originally a Xiongnu, was a skilled archer who, in desperate times, could hunt game to sustain them both. When Zhang Qian had first set out, over a hundred men had accompanied him; after thirteen years, only two returned alive.

The Xiongnu's right wing controls the territory east of Salt Marsh, stretching to the Long Wall at Longxi. To the south they border the Qiang people, controlling the routes that link Han with the west.

To the north lies Kangju; to the west, Greater Yuezhi; to the southwest, Bactria; to the northeast, the Wusun; and to the east, Yutian and Yulaxi. West of Yutian, all rivers flow westward into the Western Sea. East of it, rivers flow eastward into Salt Marsh. Salt Marsh runs underground for great distances, and the sources of the Yellow River emerge from its southern reaches. This region is rich in jade and other precious stones, which flow eastward to China. The towns of Loulan and Jushi, with their walls and markets, stand beside Salt Marsh, which lies about five thousand li from Chang'an.

The Wusun lie about two thousand li northeast of Dayuan. They are a nomadic people, moving with their herds and sharing customs with the Xiongnu. They muster several tens of thousands of skilled archers who have proven themselves in battle. They once submitted to Xiongnu rule, but when their power grew, they took control of their own affairs and refused to attend the Xiongnu court.

Kangju lies about two thousand li northwest of Dayuan. It is also a nomadic nation with customs similar to the Yuezhi. Its warriors number eighty or ninety thousand. It borders Dayuan, though Kangju itself is smaller, paying tribute to the Yuezhi to the south and to the Xiongnu to the east.

The Yanchai live about two thousand li northwest of Kangju. Like the Kangju, they are nomads with similar customs and can field over a hundred thousand archers. They live beside a vast, boundless lake—indeed, the Northern Sea.

Greater Yuezhi lies two or three thousand li west of Dayuan, north of the River Gui. To its south lies Bactria; to its west, Parthia; to its north, Kangju. The Yuezhi are a nomadic people, migrating with their herds and sharing Xiongnu customs, with warriors numbering one or two hundred thousand. Once powerful, they despised the Xiongnu—until Modu became Chanyu and defeated them. The son of Laoshang, the subsequent Chanyu, killed the Yuezhi king and made a trophy of his skull. Originally the Yuezhi had dwelt between Dunhuang and the Qilian Mountains, but after their defeat they fled far away. Passing through Dayuan, they conquered and subjugated the Bactrians, establishing their capital north of the River Gui as their royal court. Those few who could not make the journey took refuge among the Qiang peoples of the southern mountains and became known as the Lesser Yuezhi.

Parthia lies several thousand li west of Greater Yuezhi. Its people are settled farmers, cultivating wheat and barley, and making grape wine. Its towns and cities resemble those of Dayuan, though Parthia is larger, encompassing several hundred cities and a territory spanning thousands of li, making it the greatest of these nations. The River Gui flows through the land, and there are markets where merchants trade using carts and boats, reaching distant lands several thousand li away. They mint silver coins stamped with the king's likeness; when a king dies, new coins are minted bearing the successor's face. Their records are kept on leather scrolls read horizontally. West of Parthia lies Tiaozhi; to the north are the Yanchai and Lixuan. Tiaozhi lies several thousand li west of Parthia, on the shores of the Western Sea. The climate is warm and humid. They till the soil and grow wheat. They have large birds whose eggs are as big as jars. The population is dense, with local chiefs governing the people. Parthia dominates them as a protector state. The Parthians excel at magical arts. Parthian elders tell of a Weak River and the Queen Mother of the West in Tiaozhi, though no one has ever seen them.

Bactria lies over two thousand li southwest of Dayuan, south of the River Gui. Its people are settled, living in houses within walled towns, much like Dayuan. There is no great king, only small chieftains overseeing each city. Their armies are weak and reluctant to fight, but they are master traders. When Greater Yuezhi migrated westward and conquered them, the Bactrians submitted to Yuezhi rule. Bactria has a population of over a million. Their capital is called Blue Market City, a bustling trade center. Southeast of Bactria lies the kingdom of Shendu."

Delighted by Zhang Qian's counsel, the Emperor ordered him to coordinate with the Governor of Yizhou to dispatch exploratory missions along four routes: through Mang, Ya, Xi, and the Qiang and Bo peoples. Each expedition traveled one or two thousand li before being blocked—the northern routes by the Di and Zuo peoples, the southern routes by the Xi and Kunming tribes. The Kunming, without centralized leadership, were skilled bandits who killed and plundered Han envoys, preventing any passage. Yet rumors reached Han of a land over a thousand li west where people rode elephants, called Yuyue, and Han merchants engaged in trade sometimes reached it. Thus Han's path to Bactria began through Yundi.

Earlier, Han had attempted to open relations with the southwestern barbarians, but the costs were excessive and the routes impassable, so the project was abandoned. When Zhang Qian proposed a route through to Bactria, the southwestern venture was revived.

The following year, Zhang Qian became Palace Guardian. Together with General Li, he attacked the Xiongnu from the Ybei area. General Li's forces were surrounded and suffered heavy casualties. Zhang Qian arrived late to the rendezvous and should have been executed, but he redeemed himself by paying a fine and was reduced to commoner status.

That same year, Han's cavalry commander defeated the Xiongnu in the west, killing several tens of thousands and driving them to the Qilian Mountains. The following year, the Xiongnu prince Hunxie led his people to surrender to Han. Han's control extended from the Golden City and the Hexi region, south through the mountains to Salt Marsh, with no Xiongnu presence. Xiongnu scouts occasionally appeared, but rarely.

Two years later, Han drove the Chanyu beyond the Great Northern Desert. The Emperor repeatedly questioned Zhang Qian about the western nations, particularly Bactria. By then Zhang Qian had lost his marquisate, but he offered this counsel: "I was held in Xiongnu territory and learned of Kunmo, the king of the Wusun. Kunmo's father was a minor chieftain on the Xiongnu frontier. When the Xiongnu killed his father, the infant Kunmo was abandoned in the wilderness. A wolf suckled him while birds carried meat to his mouth—strange events that the Chanyu took as divine signs. He raised the child, and when Kunmo grew strong and proved himself a capable warrior, the Chanyu gave him his father's people to command and appointed him guardian of the western marches.

The Emperor approved this strategy. He appointed Zhang Qian as Interior Attendant and sent him with three hundred men, two horses each, and tens of thousands of cattle and sheep, along with treasures and silks worth millions. Zhang Qian took along deputy envoys with authority to dispatch them to other nations as opportunities arose.

Upon reaching Wusun, King Kunmo received Zhang Qian with the honors due a Chanyu. Zhang Qian was mortified, realizing the Wusun's love of wealth was at play. "The Emperor's gifts are meant for you," he said, "but if you do not acknowledge them with proper reverence, the gifts will be withdrawn." Kunmo rose and performed the formal acknowledgment. Yet when Zhang Qian outlined the proposed alliance—Wusun would move east to occupy the former Hunxie lands, and Han would send a princess as Kunmo's wife—the Wusun king hesitated. The kingdom was divided, the king aged, and Han was distant; Kunmo did not know Han's true power. For generations they had been Xiongnu subjects and lived near them; their nobles feared the Xiongnu and wished to remain. The king could not decide unilaterally. Zhang Qian failed to secure a commitment.

Kunmo had over ten sons. His middle son, Dalu, was strong and capable with an army of over ten thousand cavalry. Dalu's elder brother was heir apparent, but the heir died young, leaving a son named Cenqu. Before dying, the heir begged Kunmo to make Cenqu his successor, and Kunmo, grieving, promised to do so. Dalu, furious at being passed over, rallied his brothers and supporters to rebel against both Cenqu and Kunmo. The aging Kunmo feared Dalu would kill Cenqu, so he assigned Cenqu his own cavalry and separated them. Kunmo himself commanded ten thousand horsemen. The nation split into three factions, yet all remained nominally under Kunmo's authority, and no decisive action was taken against Zhang Qian's proposals.

Zhang Qian dispatched his deputies as envoys to Dayuan, Kangju, Greater Yuezhi, Bactria, Parthia, Shendu, Yutian, Yulaxi, and neighboring lands. The Wusun provided guides to escort Zhang Qian home. He in turn left Han envoys and dozens of horses as thanks, allowing them to observe Han's wealth and power.

Upon Zhang Qian's return to court, he was appointed Grand Envoy, ranked among the Nine Ministers. Over a year later, he died.

The Wusun envoys who had seen Han's prosperity and wealth reported back to their king, and the kingdom came to value Han's friendship. A year or so later, the various envoys Zhang Qian had sent to the western nations returned with officials and merchants from those lands. Thus began regular communication between the northwestern nations and Han.

Zhang Qian had opened these routes; all subsequent envoys were known as Bowang Marquis envoys, their presence guaranteeing Han's good faith to foreign courts. Foreign nations trusted them because of this.

After Zhang Qian's death, the Xiongnu, hearing that Han had connected with the Wusun, grew angry and threatened attack. When Han envoys traveled to the Wusun—passing through its southern territories en route to Dayuan and Greater Yuezhi—the Wusun grew frightened and sent envoys offering horses as tribute, seeking to marry a Han princess and establish fraternal relations.

The Emperor consulted his ministers, who agreed that tribute and marriage should precede any princess's journey. Earlier, the Emperor had consulted the I Ching, which prophesied, "Divine horses should come from the northwest." When the Wusun horses arrived, they were excellent, and Han named them "Celestial Horses." Later, when the blood-sweating horses of Dayuan arrived, even finer, Han renamed the Wusun horses "WesternExtremity Horses" and the Dayuan horses "Celestial Horses."

The envoys dispatched to foreign lands numbered several hundred on the largest missions, more than a hundred on the smaller ones, and each carried goods patterned after what the Bowang Marquis had once done. Over time, these missions became more commonplace and fewer in number. In the course of a year, the Han might send as many as a dozen or more embassies, or as few as five or six. The longest journeys took eight or nine years to complete, while the shortest required several years for the return.

At this time, the Han had already destroyed Nanyue, and the Shu and southwestern barbarians were all in alarm, requesting that officials be sent to court. The Han therefore established the commanderies of Yizhou, Yuexi, Zangke, Shenli, and Wenshan, hoping to extend their territory so as to open a route to Daxia. Envoys such as Bai Shichang and Lü Yuoren were sent out in teams of more than ten each year, traveling from these newly established commanderies toward Daxia. But at Kunming, they were intercepted and killed, their wealth and goods seized; none succeeded in reaching Daxia.