项羽本纪 — Shiji

When young, Xiang Yu studied letters but gave up before mastering them. He then studied swordsmanship and failed at that too. Xiang Liang was furious. "Letters are only good enough to record names," Yu replied. "A sword can only defeat one man—there is no point learning it. I want to learn how to defeat ten thousand men." So Xiang Liang taught Yu military strategy. Yu was overjoyed, grasped only the general outline, and refused to pursue it to completion.

Once when Xiang Liang faced arrest in Liyang, he asked the prison clerk Cao Jiu to write a letter to the Liyang prison clerk Sima Xin, and the matter was quietly dropped. Xiang Liang had committed murder, so he and Yu fled to Wu to avoid vengeance. The gentry and officials of Wu all ranked below Xiang Liang. Whenever Wu undertook major construction projects or funerals, Xiang Liang invariably took charge, secretly organizing guests and young men according to military principles—so everyone came to recognize his ability.

When the First Emperor of Qin toured Kuaiji, crossing the Yangtze River, Xiang Liang and Yu watched the imperial procession together. "I can take his place and replace him," said Yu. Xiang Liang clamped his hand over Yu's mouth. "Do not speak such nonsense—it would mean exterminating your family!" Yet Xiang Liang became convinced that Yu was extraordinary. Yu stood over eight feet tall, possessed strength enough to lift a cauldron, and had talent that surpassed others. Even the finest young men of Wu had come to fear him.

In the seventh month of the second year of Qin Er Shi, Chen Sheng and others rose in revolt at Daze. In the ninth month, the Kuaiji prefect Tong said to Xiang Liang: "The lands north of the Yangtze have all risen in rebellion—this is indeed the moment heaven sends for Qin's destruction. I have heard that the one who strikes first controls others, while the one who strikes second is controlled by them. I wish to raise an army, placing you and Huan Chu in command." At that time Huan Chu was a fugitive in the marshes. "Huan Chu has fled," said Xiang Liang, "and no one knows where he is—only Yu knows his whereabouts." Xiang Liang went out and instructed Yu to wait outside with sword in hand. Xiang Liang re-entered and sat with the prefect. "If you would summon Yu," he said, "so that he may receive your orders to summon Huan Chu." "Agreed," said the prefect. Xiang Liang called Yu in. A moment later, Xiang Liang gave Yu a meaningful look: "Now!" Yu drew his sword and struck off the prefect's head. Xiang Liang held the head aloft, wearing the seal and ribbon of office. The household was thrown into chaos. Yu cut down several dozen to a hundred men. Everyone in the residence was overcome with fear; no one dared rise. Xiang Liang then summoned his trusted bold officials, explained to them what he intended to do, and raised an army in Wu. He sent men to conscript the lower counties, gathering eight thousand select troops. He assigned the leading gentry of Wu as captains, company commanders, and officers. One man was passed over and complained to Xiang Liang. "When someone recently died," Liang replied, "I put you in charge of certain affairs, and you could not handle them. That is why I am not employing you." Everyone thereupon submitted.

Xiang Liang was made military governor of Kuaiji, Yu as his deputy general, and they proceeded to conquer the surrounding counties. A man named Zhaoping from Guangling had been campaigning for King Chen in Guangling but could not take the city. Hearing that Chen Wang had been defeated and fled, and that Qin troops were approaching, he crossed the Yangtze. Claiming to carry orders from Chen Wang, he installed Xiang Liang as Supreme General of Chu. "The East has been pacified," he declared. "Move your forces swiftly westward to strike Qin."

Xiang Liang crossed the Yangtze with eight thousand men heading west. Hearing that Chen Ying had taken Dongyang, he sent an envoy wishing to join forces and march west together. Chen Ying had been a clerk in Dongyang county and was known for his trustworthiness and caution, regarded as an elder. The young men of Dongyang had killed their magistrate and gathered several thousand, wanting to appoint a leader but finding no suitable person. They approached Chen Ying, who declined. They then forcibly installed him as their leader, and twenty thousand men from the county rallied to him. The young men wished to make Chen Ying king, forming a distinct force distinguished by black headbands. Chen Ying's mother said to him: "Since I married into your family, I have never heard of your ancestors attaining honor. To gain great fame suddenly is ill-omened. Better to attach yourself to someone. If you succeed, you may still earn a title; if you fail, you can easily escape—you will not be singled out by the world." Chen Ying dared not become king. He said to his officers: "The Xiang family has been generals for generations and is renowned in Chu. If we wish to raise a great enterprise, we must have the right man. Relying on a distinguished lineage, we will surely destroy Qin." They followed his counsel and submitted to Xiang Liang.

Xiang Liang crossed the Huai River. Qing Bu and General Pu also joined with their forces—altogether sixty or seventy thousand men, encamping at Xiapi. At this time Qin Jia had installed Jing Ju as King of Chu, with his army at Pengcheng's east, intending to block Xiang Liang. Xiang Liang said to his officers: "Chen Wang was first to rise in revolt, fought at a disadvantage, and his whereabouts are unknown. Now Qin Jia has betrayed Chen Wang to install Jing Ju—wicked and unjust." He advanced to attack Qin Jia, whose army was defeated and fled. Xiang Liang pursued him to Luling, where Qin Jia turned to fight for a day before dying. His army surrendered. Jing Ju fled and died in Liang. Xiang Liang consolidated Qin Jia's forces at Luling and prepared to march west.

Zhang Han's army arrived at Li. Xiang Liang sent separate generals Zhu Jishi and Yu Fan to engage them. Yu Fan was killed; Zhu Jishi's forces were defeated and fled to Luling. Xiang Liang led his army into Xue and executed Zhu Jishi. Earlier, Xiang Liang had sent Yu to attack Xiancheng separately. Xiancheng held firm and could not be taken. When it finally fell, Yu buried all its inhabitants alive. Returning to report to Xiang Liang, he learned that Chen Wang had been confirmed dead. Xiang Liang summoned all the separate generals to Xue to deliberate.

At this time Liu Bang had also risen in revolt from Pei and went to join them. Fan Zeng, a man from Juchao, was seventy years old and had lived quietly at home, though he was fond of clever stratagems. He went to persuade Xiang Liang: "Chen Sheng's defeat was only to be expected. When Qin destroyed the six states, Chu was the most innocent. Since King Huai entered Qin and never returned, the people of Chu have mourned him to this day. That is why the southern lord of Chu said: 'Even if Chu were reduced to three households, it would surely destroy Qin.' Now Chen Sheng led the uprising but did not establish a successor to Chu before declaring himself king—his dominance could not last. Now you have risen in the East; the scattered generals of Chu all compete to attach themselves to you, because yours is a family of Chu generals through the generations, and you can restore a successor to Chu." Xiang Liang found his argument sound, so he searched for King Huai's grandson Xin among the common people. Xin was working as a shepherd, but Xiang Liang installed him as King Huai of Chu, as the people wished. Chen Ying was made Supreme General of Chu and enfeoffed with five counties, the capital established at Xutai. Xiang Liang took the title Lord Wu Xin.

After several months, he led his forces to attack Kangfu. Coordinating with Tian Rong of Qi and Sima Longju, they rescued Dong'e, crushing the Qin army. Tian Rong then led his forces home, drove out the King of Qi, who fled to Chu, and the Prime Minister of Qi, Tian Jiao, fled to Zhao. Tian Jiao's brother Tian Jian, a former Qi general, was in Zhao and dared not return. Tian Rong installed Tian Dan's son Chi as King of Qi.

Xiang Liang, having broken the Qin forces at Dong'e, pursued them westward. He sent several emissaries urging Qi to join him in marching west. Tian Rong replied: "Kill Tian Jia of Qi and Zhao kills Tian Jiao and Tian Jian—then I will send troops." Xiang Liang said: "Tian Jia was a king allied with us; he came to me in distress, and I could not bring myself to kill him. Zhao should not kill Tian Jiao and Tian Jian to curry favor with Qi." Qi therefore refused to send troops to aid Chu.

Xiang Liang sent Liu Bang and Xiang Yu to attack Chengyang separately, putting the city to the sword. They then smashed the Qin army east of Puyang; the Qin forces regrouped inside Puyang. Liu Bang and Xiang Yu attacked and took Dingtao. Leaving there, they swept west as far as Yongqiu, crushing the Qin army and killing Li You. Returning to attack Wuhuang, they could not take it.

The military officers all said, "Good." Xiang Yu then arranged to meet Zhang Han on the ruins of Yin south of the Huan River. After swearing a blood oath, Zhang Han saw Xiang Yu and wept, telling him of Zhao Gao's crimes. Xiang Yu then installed Zhang Han as King of Yong and placed him within the Chu army. He appointed Chief Clerk Sima Xin as Supreme General to lead the Qin troops as the vanguard. When they reached Xin'an, the officers and soldiers of the various lords, who had previously passed through the Guanzhong region on corvée or garrison duty, remembered how the Qin officers and soldiers there had treated them with extreme rudeness and contempt. After the Qin army surrendered to the lords, the lords' officers and soldiers, carried away by victory, often treated the Qin soldiers as slaves and captives, casually humiliating and abusing them.

Many Qin officers and soldiers whispered among themselves: 'General Zhang Han and the others tricked us into surrendering to the allied lords. If we can enter the pass and destroy Qin, that would be excellent; but if we cannot, the lords will take us captive and head east, and Qin will surely slaughter all our parents, wives, and children.' The lords caught wind of their talk and reported it to Xiang Yu. Xiang Yu then summoned Qing Bu and General Pu to deliberate: 'The Qin officers and soldiers are still numerous, and their hearts are not submissive. When we reach Guanzhong, if they refuse to obey orders, the situation will be perilous. It is better to kill them, and enter Qin with only Zhang Han, Chief Clerk Xin, and Commandant Yi.' Therefore, that night the Chu army struck, massacring and burying alive over two hundred thousand Qin soldiers south of Xin'an City.

Qin indeed mobilized all its forces, strengthening Zhang Han, and struck the Chu army, crushing it at Dingtao. Xiang Liang died. Liu Bang and Xiang Yu, leaving Wuhuang, attacked Chenliu, but the city held firm and could not be taken. They consulted: "Xiang Liang's army is broken; the soldiers are terrified." They therefore united with Lü Chen's forces and led their armies eastward. Lü Chen encamped east of Pengcheng, Xiang Yu west of Pengcheng, and Liu Bang at Dang.

Zhang Han, having crushed Xiang Liang's army, concluded that Chu's forces were no longer a threat. He crossed the Yellow River and attacked Zhao, crushing it badly. At this time Zhao Xie was King of Zhao, Chen Yu was general, and Zhang Er was prime minister—all had fled into the city of Julu. Zhang Han ordered Wang Li and She Jian to encircle Julu, while his own army camped to the south, building supply roads to transport grain. Chen Yu, as general, commanded several tens of thousands of men north of Julu—these were the forces of Hebei.

'Recently there has been talk from petty men, causing a rift between you, General, and myself.' King Xiang said: 'It was your Left Marshal Cao Wushang who spoke of this; otherwise, how could I, Ji, have come to this?' King Xiang on that very day accordingly kept the Lord of Pei to drink with him. King Xiang and Xiang Bo sat facing east. The Royal Uncle faced south. The Royal Uncle was Fan Zeng.

Having suffered the defeat at Dingtao, King Huai was alarmed. He moved from Xutai to Pengcheng, merging Xiang Yu's and Lü Chen's armies under his direct command. He made Lü Chen Palace Attendant and his father Lü Qing Minister of the Interior. He made Liu Bang Superintendent of Dang, enfeoffed as Lord of Wu'an, commanding the Dang forces.

Earlier, when Song Yi had encountered the Qi envoy Gao Lingjun Xian in the Chu army, he said to the king: "Song Yi predicted that the Lord Wu Xin's army would surely be defeated. Several days passed, and the army indeed was defeated. To foresee defeat before battle and perceive the signs of failure—this is true military wisdom." The king summoned Song Yi to discuss affairs and was greatly pleased, appointing him Supreme General, Xiang Yu as Lord of Lu and Secondary General, and Fan Zeng as Rear General, to rescue Zhao. All separate generals were placed under Song Yi's command; they called him Champion of the Gentlemen.

When he reached Anyang, he halted for forty-six days without advancing. Xiang Yu said: "I have heard that the Qin army has surrounded King of Zhao at Julu. We should swiftly lead our forces across the river; Chu attacks from outside, Zhao responds from within—we will surely defeat the Qin army." Song Yi replied: "Not so. The gadfly that attacks the ox cannot kill the louse. Now Qin attacks Zhao; if they win, their army will be exhausted, and we can take advantage of their weakness. If they do not win, then we can lead our forces westward and certainly capture Qin. Therefore it is best to let Qin and Zhao wear each other out first. In wearing armor and wielding weapons, I am not your equal; in sitting and planning strategy, you are not my equal." He issued an order to the army: "Anyone fierce as a tiger, stubborn as a goat, greedy as a wolf, or willfully obstinate will be beheaded."

He sent his son Song Xiang to Qi, personally escorting him to Wuyan where he held a grand banquet. The weather was cold and rain fell heavily; the soldiers were cold and hungry. Xiang Yu said: "We should unite our strength to attack Qin, yet we linger here. This year the harvest has failed and the people are impoverished; the soldiers eat taro and beans with nothing to sustain them. You hold lavish banquets and will not lead the army across the river to avail ourselves of Zhao's provisions, saying instead that we should 'take advantage of their exhaustion.' With Qin's strength attacking newly-established Zhao, they will certainly take it. If Zhao falls and Qin grows stronger, what exhaustion can we exploit? Moreover, our army has just suffered a major defeat; the king cannot sit peacefully at home. He has committed all the strength of the realm to this general. The state's safety hangs on this single venture. If we do not care for our soldiers but indulge private interests, we are no ministers of the state."

He transferred the King of Yan, Han Guang, to be King of Liaodong. The Yan general Zang Tu had followed Chu to relieve Zhao and consequently accompanied the army into the Pass; therefore Zang Tu was installed as King of Yan, with his capital at Ji. He transferred the King of Qi, Tian Shi, to be King of Jiaodong. The Qi general Tian Du had joined in the shared relief of Zhao and consequently accompanied the army into the Pass; therefore Tian Du was installed as King of Qi, with his capital at Linzi. Tian An, the grandson of King Jian of Qi whom Qin had formerly destroyed, when Xiang Yu was crossing the river to relieve Zhao, had captured several cities in Jibei and led his troops to surrender to Xiang Yu; therefore Tian An was installed as King of Jibei, with his capital at Boyang.

Tian Rong had repeatedly betrayed Xiang Liang and was unwilling to lead his troops to follow Chu in attacking Qin; therefore he was not enfeoffed. Lord Cheng'an, Chen Yu, had cast aside his general's seal and departed, not following Xiang Yu into the Pass. Yet Xiang Yu had long heard of Chen Yu's worth and his service to Zhao, and learning that he was at Nanpi, he accordingly enfeoffed him with the three counties surrounding Nanpi. Mei Xuan, general of the Lord of Po, had rendered great service, and was therefore created a marquis of one hundred thousand households. King Xiang set himself up as Hegemon-King of Western Chu, ruling nine commanderies, with his capital at Pengcheng. In the fourth month of the first year of the Han, the various princes broke camp at Xixia and each proceeded to his own kingdom.

At dawn, Xiang Yu went to pay respects to the Supreme General Song Yi. In his tent he cut off Song Yi's head, then issued the order to the army: "Song Yi conspired with Qi to rebel against Chu; the king secretly ordered me to execute him." At this, all the generals were terrified and submitted. No one dared resist. They all said: "The one who first established Chu was the general's family. Now the general has eliminated the rebels." They jointly installed Xiang Yu as Acting Supreme General. They sent men to pursue Song Yi's son; they caught up with him in Qi and killed him. They sent Huan Chu to report to King Huai. The king then made Xiang Yu Supreme General, with the Marquis of Dangyang and General Pu under Xiang Yu's command.

Having killed the Champion of the Gentlemen, Xiang Yu's fame shook Chu and was heard throughout the feudal lords. He sent the Marquis of Dangyang and General Pu with twenty thousand men across the river to rescue Julu. Fighting went somewhat favorably; Chen Yu again requested reinforcements. Xiang Yu then led all his forces across the river. They sank their boats, smashed their cauldrons, burned their quarters, carried only three days' worth of grain—showing the soldiers they meant to fight to the death with no thought of return.

Arriving, they surrounded Wang Li and engaged the Qin army. Nine battles were fought; they cut the supply road and crushed them, killing Su Jiao and capturing Wang Li. She Jian would not surrender to Chu and burned himself to death.

At this time the Chu army surpassed all others. The forces of the feudal lords that had come to rescue Julu numbered more than ten camps, yet none dared send out their troops. When Chu attacked Qin, the generals of the other states watched from their fortifications. Chu soldiers fought as if each were ten; the Chu battle cries shook the heavens. The soldiers of the feudal lords were all filled with dread.

When the Qin army was broken, Xiang Yu summoned the generals of the feudal lords. They entered the camp gate on their knees, not daring to look up. From this, Xiang Yu became Supreme General of the feudal lords, and all submitted to him.

Zhang Han's army was at Jiyuan; Xiang Yu's army was south of the Zhang River. They faced each other without fighting. The Qin forces retreated several times. The Second Emperor sent someone to rebuke Zhang Han. Zhang Han grew fearful and sent the Chamberlain of the Palace Guard Xin to request instructions. Arriving at Xianyang, he was kept waiting at the Sima Gate for three days without seeing Zhao Gao, who harbored doubts about him. The Chamberlain of the Palace Guard Xin grew frightened, fled back to his army, and did not take the main road—Zhao Gao indeed sent men in pursuit but failed to overtake him. Xin returned to the army and reported: "Zhao Gao holds power at court; no one below can accomplish anything. If we win battles, Zhao Gao will surely envy our achievements; if we cannot win, we will not escape death. I pray Your Excellency will consider this carefully."

Chen Yu also sent a letter to Zhang Han: "Bai Qi was a Qin general. He marched south to subdue Yan and Ying, north to bury the Maquan forces, captured cities and seized territory beyond counting—and yet was finally ordered to die. Meng Tian was a Qin general who drove out the northern barbarians and opened up several thousand li of territory—and was executed at Yangzhou. Why? Because their achievements were too numerous, their fame too great, and Qin could not employ them. Now you have been a Qin general for three years, losing troops numbering one hundred thousand, yet there remain the Zhao forces of Chen Yu to oppose you. The situation, I submit, demands careful consideration. The heavens do not support Qin; the ministers of Qin do not trust you. You cannot count on Qin any longer for reward or further advancement. To advance or retreat—both lead to death. Would you still serve Qin to the death?

"In the past, Su Qin served as chief minister of Han, promoting the alliance of the six eastern states against Qin, yet he was vilified by the western states and met a violent death in the western palace. The people of Zhou valued the alliance and despised capitulation to Qin, precisely because they knew that Su Qin's character was flawed yet he won the trust of six states. Now if you can long preserve the Zhao forces and ally with Chu and Qi, then Qin is certain to be destroyed."

Meng Tian was a general of Qin who drove back the Rong tribes to the north and opened up several thousand li of territory in Yuzhong, only to be executed at Yangzhou. Why? Because his achievements were too numerous, and Qin could not possibly reward them all, so he was put to death under the law. Now you, General, have been a Qin general for three years, and your losses number over a hundred thousand. The various lords are rising in ever greater numbers. That Zhao Gao has been a sycophant for a long time, but now that matters are urgent, he fears that Er Shi will execute him too—so he intends to punish you with the law to deflect blame, sending someone else to replace you and escape the consequences.

Why not withdraw your forces and join with the other lords? Form an alliance, attack Qin together, divide the empire among yourselves, and rule from the south as kings. How would this compare to kneeling before execution, with your wife and children slaughtered?

Zhang Han hesitated. Secretly he sent the scout Hou Shicheng to Xiang Yu to negotiate. Before terms were settled, Xiang Yu sent General Pu Jiang to cross the Sanmu pass by night, leading his forces south of the Zhang River where they fought and defeated the Qin army again. Xiang Yu then led all his forces against the Qin troops at Wushui and routed them completely. Zhang Han sent men to see Xiang Yu and request terms. Xiang Yu summoned his officers: "Our provisions are running low. We should accept their terms." The officers all agreed. Xiang Yu then set a date to meet at the Shangyuan shrine south of the Huan River.

When they met, Zhang Han wept before Xiang Yu and told him of Zhao Gao's schemes. Xiang Yu installed Zhang Han as King of Yong, placing him in the Chu army. He made the Chief Clerk Xin as Senior General, commanding the Qin forces as the vanguard. They proceeded to Xin'an.

Now, officers and soldiers from the vassal states had in former times been conscripted for garrison duty and passed through Qin territory, where they had been treated badly by Qin officials. When the Qin armies surrendered to the vassals, the soldiers of the conquering states, flushed with victory, treated them as slaves, subjecting them to humiliation and abuse.

The Qin soldiers whispered among themselves: "The General Zhang and the others deceived us into surrendering to these lords. If they can enter the pass and destroy Qin, well and good. But if they cannot, the lords will take us captive and march us east, and Qin will certainly execute all our parents, wives, and children."

When the lords heard these whispers, they reported them to Xiang Yu. Xiang Yu summoned Qing Bu and General Pu Jiang: "The Qin soldiers are still numerous and their hearts are not submissive. Once they reach Guanzhong and refuse to obey, matters will become dangerous. It would be better to kill them all, keeping only Zhang Han, the Chief Clerk Xin, and the Commandant Yi to enter Qin."

That night, the Chu army struck and buried more than two hundred thousand Qin soldiers south of Xin'an.

Liu Bang's army was stationed at Bashang, and he had not yet met Xiang Yu. Liu Bang's Left Sima Cao Wushang sent word to Xiang Yu: "Liu Bang intends to king himself over Guanzhong, make Zi Ying his prime minister, and possess all the treasures." Xiang Yu roared, "Tomorrow we feast the troops, then smash Liu Bang's army to pieces!"

At this time, Xiang Yu had four hundred thousand troops at Hongmen in Xinfeng, while Liu Bang had only one hundred thousand at Bashang.

Fan Zeng urged Xiang Yu: "When Liu Bang was east of the mountains, he was greedy for wealth and fond of beautiful women. Now that he has entered the pass, he has taken nothing, favored no women—his ambitions are certainly not small. I have observed his aura: it forms like dragons and tigers, colored in the five hues. This is the aura of the Son of Heaven. Attack him quickly and do not hesitate."

That night, Xiang Bo returned to camp and reported everything to Xiang Yu. He also said, "If Liu Bang had not first broken through the pass, how could you have entered? He has rendered great service. To attack him now would be unjust. Better to treat him well." Xiang Yu agreed.

Xiang Bo agreed. "Tomorrow you must come in person to apologize to the King." "Very well," said Liu Bang.