李斯列传 — Shiji

Li Si was a native of Shangcai in the state of Chu. In his youth, he served as a minor clerk in the county office. Observing the rats in the latrine of the official quarters, he saw them feeding on refuse and fleeing in terror whenever people or dogs approached. Then, entering the granary, he watched the rats there—well-fed on stored grain, nesting comfortably beneath spacious eaves, completely undisturbed by the presence of people or dogs. At this, Li Si sighed and said: "A man's worth or unworthiness is like these rats—it all depends on where he places himself!" He therefore studied the art of rulership under Master Xun. Once his studies were complete, he judged that the King of Chu was not worth serving, and that all six states were weak, leaving no opportunity for achieving distinction. He resolved to travel west into Qin.

Addressing his teacher, Li Si said: "I have heard that when opportunity presents itself, one must not delay. Now, while the great powers are locked in struggle, those who travel abroad become the masters of affairs. Since the King of Qin wishes to swallow up the realm and rule as emperor, this is the very moment for men of ambition to rise. For a man of humble status to remain inactive, calculating no action—this is to behave like a stag that can only stare at meat, a creature with a human face yet incapable of purposeful action. Thus, there is no greater disgrace than lowly status, and no greater misery than poverty. To remain long in a humble position, in bitter circumstances, to renounce the world and despise profit, hiding behind the pretense of inaction—this is not the temperament of a true scholar. I shall therefore travel west to advise the King of Qin."

Upon arriving in Qin, he found that King Zhuangxiang had just died. Li Si sought a position as a retainer with Lü Buwei, the Prime Minister and Marquis of Wenxin, who recognized his abilities and appointed him to the post of Cavalier Attendant. Through this connection, Li Si gained an audience with the King of Qin and spoke to him: "Those who wait for others to act miss the critical moment. To achieve great exploits, one must seize upon flaws and vulnerabilities and act decisively. Of old, Duke Mu of Qin achieved hegemony—yet he never managed to conquer the six eastern states. Why? Because the vassals were too numerous and the Zhou dynasty's virtue had not yet declined, so the five hegemons rose in succession, each vying to honor the House of Zhou. But since Duke Xiao's time, the Zhou House has grown feeble, the vassals have devoured one another, and the lands east of the passes have become six separate states. Qin has exploited its victories to subjugate these vassals for six generations now. Today, the vassals are subjugated to Qin, much like counties and districts under a single administration. Given Qin's strength and Your Majesty's wisdom, it would be no harder than sweeping the hearth to extinguish the six states and achieve the imperial enterprise—the unification of the realm. This is the opportunity of countless generations!"

Around this time, a man from Han named Zheng Guo came to Qin as a spy, proposing the construction of irrigation canals. The scheme was eventually discovered. The noble families and ministers of Qin petitioned the King: "Those subjects from the various states who come to serve Qin are mostly spies sent by their lords to create discord in our realm. We request that all foreign advisors be expelled."

Li Si's name was on the list of those to be expelled. He submitted a memorial: "Your servant has heard that the ministers were deliberating the expulsion of foreign advisors, and ventures to say that this is a grave error. Of old, Duke Mu of Qin sought talent, summoning You Yu from the Rong tribes in the west, securing Baili Xi from the state of Yu, inviting Jian Shu from Song, and recruiting Pi Bao and Gongsun Zhi from Jin. These five men were not natives of Qin, yet Duke Mu employed them and thereby unified twenty states, achieving hegemony over the western peoples.

"Duke Xiao employed Shang Yang's reforms, transforming customs and manners. The people prospered, the state grew wealthy and powerful, the common folk were content, and the vassals submitted in allegiance. He defeated the armies of Chu and Wei, annexing over a thousand li of territory—Qin remains strong to this day. King Hui employed Zhang Yi's strategy, seizing the regions of Sanchuan, incorporating Ba and Shu in the west, absorbing Shang Commandery in the north, acquiring Hanzhong in the south, enveloping the nine Yi tribes, controlling Yan and Ying, occupying the strategic passes of Chenggong, and carving out fertile lands. He shattered the alliance of the six states, compelling them to serve Qin from the west—their achievements endure to this very day.

"King Zhaoxiang obtained Fan Sui, dismissed the Marquises Rang and Yang, expelled the Hua Yang lords, strengthened the royal house, curtailed private influences, and set Qin on the path to imperial dominion. These four rulers all achieved their success through foreign advisors. From this we may observe: what fault have these foreign advisors found with Qin? Had these four rulers rejected foreign talent and refused to employ capable men, the state would have lacked the resources for prosperity and Qin would not possess its great name.

"If only items from Qin were used to adorn your chambers, fill your retinue, and gratify your senses, then the hairpins of Wan pearls, the earrings of set jewels, the fine silks of E and the embroidered ornaments would not appear before you, nor would the elegant, beautiful women of Zhao stand at your side. The music of the ancient Qin—clay drums struck, fifes plucked, castanets beaten, accompanied by rustic songs and melodies that delight the ear—represents authentic Qin music. The melodies of Zheng and Wei, the songs of Sangjian, Zhao, Yu, and the Wuxiang dances come from foreign lands. Yet now you reject the clay drums and fifes for the music of Zheng and Wei, abandon the Qin fife for the melodies of Yu—why? Because whatever pleases the senses and suits the eye is what matters.

"But in employing men, Your Majesty acts differently. You pay no heed to ability or incompetence, make no distinction between right and wrong—any non-Qin national is rejected, any foreign advisor is expelled. Thus what you value is cosmetics, music, pearls, and jade, while what you disdain is human beings. This is not the way to unify the realm and control the vassals.

"Your servant has heard that broad lands produce abundant grain, great states are home to many people, and strong armies foster courageous soldiers. Thus the great mountain does not spurn the smallest clod of earth, and so attains its towering height; the great rivers and seas refuse no trickle of water, and so achieve their depth. Rulers who reject no subjects illuminate their virtue. Where the land knows no boundaries, the people know no homeland, the seasons bring abundance, and spirits and gods bestow blessings—such was the way of the Five Emperors and Three Kings, and none could withstand them.

Li Si believed that the emperor had died away from the capital and that there was no true crown prince, so he kept the death a secret. He placed the First Emperor's body in a closed carriage; officials presented memorials and the emperor's meals as usual, while eunuchs accepted the memorials from within the carriage. Zhao Gao therefore withheld the seal and the letter intended for Fusu and said to Prince Huhai: 'The emperor has passed away, and there is no edict enfeoffing any of the princes as kings—only a letter addressed solely to the eldest son. When the eldest son arrives, he will immediately be made emperor, yet you will not possess an inch of land. What can be done about this?' Huhai replied: 'That is true. I have heard that an enlightened ruler knows his ministers, and an enlightened father knows his sons. My father has departed and did not enfeoff his other sons—what more is there to say?' Zhao Gao said: 'Not so. Right now, the power over the empire—and the choice between survival and ruin—lies with you, me, and the chancellor. I urge you to consider making a plan.'

Furthermore, to serve others and to be served by others, to control others and to be controlled by others—how can these be spoken of in the same breath! Hu Hai said: 'Deposing an elder brother to set up a younger brother as ruler is unjust; failing to obey a father's testamentary edict out of fear of death is unfilial; having meager ability and mediocre talent, yet forcibly relying on another's achievements, is incompetence. These three things violate virtue; the realm will not submit, one's person may be endangered and overthrown, and the state's altars will not receive blood sacrifices.' Gao said: 'I have heard that Tang and Wu killed their rulers, yet the world praised them as righteous—they were not deemed disloyal.'

The ruler of Wei killed his father, yet the state of Wei recorded his virtue, and Confucius also recorded this, not considering it unfilial. A person of great conduct does not fret over small details; a person of abundant virtue does not decline courtesies or yield. Local customs each have their own suitable practices, and various officials differ in their achievements. Therefore, to attend to the small and forget the great will later bring harm; to be suspicious and hesitant will later bring regret. Act decisively and courageously, even ghosts and spirits will avoid you, and later there will be success. I hope you, Prince, will follow this! Hu Hai sighed deeply and said: 'Now the late emperor's passing has not yet been announced, the mourning rites are not yet complete; how could I trouble the Chancellor with this matter?'

Zhao Gao said, 'The moment! The moment! There is no time for deliberation! Carry provisions, leap on horseback, fearing only to be too late!' Hu Hai agreed with Zhao Gao’s words. Zhao Gao said, 'Without consulting the Chancellor, I fear the matter cannot succeed. Allow me to discuss it with the Chancellor on your behalf.' Zhao Gao then said to Chancellor Li Si: 'His Majesty has passed away. He bestowed a letter on his eldest son, summoning him to Xianyang for the funeral and to be installed as heir. That letter has not yet been dispatched; now that His Majesty has died, no one knows of it. The letter for the eldest son and the imperial seals are all in Hu Hai’s possession. Determining the heir apparent rests solely on a word from you, my lord, and me. How shall the matter proceed?' Li Si said, 'How can you utter words that would destroy the state!'

In the thirty-fourth year of the First Emperor's reign, a banquet was held in the Xianyang Palace. Zhou Qingchen, the chief of the Scholars, and others lauded the Emperor's majesty and virtue. A man from Qi named Chunyu Yue remonstrated: "Your servant has heard that the kings of Yin and Zhou ruled for over a thousand years precisely because they enfeoffed their sons and meritorious officials as pillars of support. Now Your Majesty holds dominion over all under heaven, yet your sons are commoners. Should a Tian Chang or six ministers arise, who would come to the rescue? A ruler who does not follow ancient precedents yet achieves lasting peace—such a thing has never been heard. Moreover, Zhou Qingchen and the others flatter you to your face, thereby compounding your errors. They are no loyal ministers!"

Li Si said, 'I have heard that when Jin changed its heir, three generations suffered unrest; when Duke Huan of Qi’s brothers contended for the throne, he was killed and his body disgraced; when Zhou murdered his own kin and refused to heed remonstrators, the state became a ruin, and the altars of earth and grain were endangered. These three acted against Heaven, and their ancestral temples received no blood sacrifices. I, Li Si, am but a man—how could I take part in such a plot!' Zhao Gao said, 'If high and low are united, there can be lasting stability; if inside and outside are as one, affairs will have no hidden dimensions. If you, my lord, follow your servant's plan, you will long hold a marquisate, be called “the lonely one” for generations, and surely enjoy the longevity of Wangzi Qiao and Chisongzi, and the wisdom of Confucius and Mozi.'

'But if you now reject this and do not follow it, disaster will reach your descendants—enough to chill the heart. A wise person can turn calamity into a blessing. Where, my lord, do you stand?' Li Si then looked up to Heaven and sighed, shedding tears and lamenting: 'Alas! Alone I have encountered a chaotic age. Since I could not die for the cause, to what can I entrust my life!' Thereupon Li Si yielded to Zhao Gao. Zhao Gao then reported to Hu Hai: 'Your servant, bearing the clear mandate of the Heir Apparent, has reported to the Chancellor. The Chancellor, Li Si, dare not but obey the command!'

The Emperor referred their arguments to the Chancellor. The Chancellor rejected their reasoning and their words, submitting a memorial: "In antiquity, the realm was fractured and no one could unify it; therefore the feudal lords rose in succession, their discourse all praising the past to discredit the present, adorning empty theories to confuse reality, each person extolling the private doctrines they favored to condemn what Your Majesty has established. Now Your Majesty has unified all under heaven, distinguishing black from white and establishing one sovereign. Yet the private schools, these unauthorized teachings, join together to contravene the official doctrine. When an edict is issued, each immediately employs his private learning to debate it—outwardly they harbor doubts, inwardly they whisper in the alleys, seeking fame by contradicting the sovereign, ambition by taking different positions. They lead the common people in creating slander. If such practices are not forbidden, then the sovereign's authority will decline above while factions will form below. Prohibition is the proper course.

"Your servant requests that all who possess the classics, poetry, books, or the teachings of the hundred schools be compelled to surrender them. Those who fail to do so within thirty days shall be branded and made to labor at the city walls. The only works exempt from destruction are those on medicine, divination, and agriculture. Whoever wishes to study must take the officials as their teachers."

Li Si's eldest son, Li You, served as Governor of Sanchuan. His younger sons had all married princesses of Qin, and his daughters had all wed princes of the imperial house. When Li You returned to Xianyang on official business, Li Si held a feast at his residence. All the high officials came forward to offer congratulations, and carriages and horses filled the courtyard by the thousands. Li Si sighed deeply: "Alas! I once heard Master Xun say that things are forbidden from reaching excessive prosperity. I am merely a commoner from Shangcai, a humble man from the alleyways. The Emperor, not recognizing my insignificance, elevated me to this position. Among ministers, no one stands higher—I have reached the pinnacle of wealth and honor. When things reach their extreme, decline follows. I do not know where my journey will end!"

He killed the ministers Meng Yi and others. Twelve princes were executed in the marketplace of Xianyang, and ten princesses were torn apart and executed in Du. Their property was confiscated by the government, and the number of people implicated and punished was too many to count. Prince Gao wanted to flee but feared his entire clan would be executed, so he submitted a memorial: 'When the Late Emperor was well, whenever I entered the palace I was granted food, and when I departed I was given an imperial carriage. Clothes from the royal wardrobe, I received as gifts; the finest horses from the palace stables, I received as gifts. I should have followed him in death but could not. As a son, I lack filial piety; as a subject, I lack loyalty. A disloyal person has no name with which to stand in the world. I beg permission to follow the Late Emperor in death and wish to be buried at the foot of Mount Li. May Your Majesty take pity and grant this mercy.' When the memorial was presented, Huhai was overjoyed. He summoned Zhao Gao and showed it to him, saying, 'Can one call this urgent?' Zhao Gao replied, 'A subject so preoccupied with dying has no leisure—what sort of conspiracy could he possibly plot!' Huhai approved the memorial and granted one hundred thousand coins for the burial.

In the seventh month of that year, the Emperor arrived at Shaqiu. His illness grew severe, and he commanded Zhao Gao to draft an edict to his son Fusu: "Entrust the army to Meng Tian. Return to Xianyang to participate in the funeral and be buried there." The edict was sealed and ready, but before the messenger could be dispatched, the Emperor died. The edict and the imperial seal were both in Zhao Gao's possession. Only the young son Huhai, Chancellor Li Si, Zhao Gao, and five or six trusted eunuchs knew of the Emperor's death—the rest of the court was ignorant.

Li Si, judging that the Emperor had died abroad with no legitimate heir present, kept the death secret. The Emperor's body was placed in the cooling carriage. Officials continued to present reports and dine as usual, while eunuchs passed messages from within the carriage. Zhao Gao, having secured the sealed edict and imperial seal, approached Prince Huhai: "The Emperor is dead. He left no edict installing any of his other sons—only the eldest received a letter. Once the eldest arrives, he will be enthroned as Emperor, while you, his son, will not possess a single foot of land. What will you do?"

Huhai replied: "Of course. I have heard it said that a wise sovereign knows his ministers, and a wise father knows his sons. Since my father has issued this command, not enfeoffing any of his sons, who am I to question?"

Zhao Gao said: "Not so. The power over the realm now rests—survival or destruction—between you, myself, and the Chancellor. Consider this carefully. Moreover, what is the difference between commanding others and being commanded by them, between controlling others and being controlled by them? How can these be spoken of in the same breath?"

But the way of an indulgent mother that ruins her child—this also comes from failing to examine the sages’ teachings. If one cannot practice the arts of the sage, then what else is there but to labor for all under Heaven? Is this not lamentable! Moreover, if men of frugality, integrity, benevolence, and righteousness stand in the court, then reckless and extravagant pleasures will cease; if remonstrating, argumentative ministers flank the ruler, then dissolute ambitions will be stifled; if acts of heroic martyrs dying for duty are manifest in the world, then the amusements of lust and ease will be abolished. All under Heaven know this truth, and the principle is clear as well.

Huhai said: "To depose an elder brother and install a younger one—this is unrighteous. To disobey a father's command and fear death—this is unfilial. To lack the ability to stand alone yet claim credit for others' achievements—this is incompetence. These three violate virtue; the realm will not submit; the ruler's person will be imperiled, and the altars of the state will cease to receive sacrifice."

It has never been heard that when laws are refined and methods are clear, the realm falls into chaos. Thus it is said: The kingly way is simple and easy to practice. Only an enlightened ruler can carry it out. If this is done, it can be called sincere supervision and accountability. Then ministers will have no deviance; with ministers free from deviance, the realm is stable; with the realm stable, the ruler is severe and revered; with the ruler severe and revered, supervision and accountability are thorough; with supervision and accountability thorough, whatever is sought is obtained; with whatever sought obtained, the state is wealthy; with the state wealthy, the ruler enjoys abundance. Therefore, when the method of supervision and accountability is established, there is nothing desired that cannot be attained.

Zhao Gao said: "I have heard that Tang and Wu executed their lords and the world called it righteous—not as an act of disloyalty. When the Duke of Wei killed his father, the state of Wei preserved his virtue, and Confucius recorded it—not as impiety. Great deeds do not require small caution; supreme virtue does not refuse what must be done; each situation requires appropriate action, and officials fulfill different functions. Thus, to be concerned with minor matters yet oblivious to great consequences leads inevitably to harm. To hesitate in doubt brings inevitable regret. To decide firmly and act boldly—even spirits and gods retreat. Let there be success thereafter. Do as I urge!"

Huhai sighed: "The Emperor's great body has not yet been borne to rest, the mourning rites are not yet complete—how could I trouble the Chancellor with such a matter?"

Zhao Gao said: "Time! Time! There is no moment for deliberation! Carry provisions and ride swiftly—there is no time to lose!"

Huhai, persuaded by Zhao Gao's arguments, instructed Zhao Gao: "Without consulting the Chancellor, the matter cannot succeed. I ask you to negotiate with the Chancellor on my behalf."

Zhao Gao then approached Chancellor Li Si: "The Emperor is dead. The letter granting the eldest son and naming him heir at the funeral in Xianyang remains undelivered. Now the Emperor is dead, and no one else knows. The letter and the imperial seal are both in Huhai's possession. The matter of who will be the heir rests between you and me. What do you think?"

Li Si said: "How could you speak words of ruin to a minister? This is not a matter that should be discussed by a subject!"

Zhao Gao said: "Judge for yourself, my lord: can you match Meng Tian in ability? In achievement? In foresight? In the hatred or favor of the world? In Fusu's long-standing trust?"

"I am merely a humble servant in the palace," said Gao. "Fortunate to have entered the Qin court through my skill with brush and ink, I have managed affairs for over twenty years, yet I have never seen a dismissed prime minister or a meritorious official who was ennobled and survived to a second emperor's reign—they all ended in execution. The Emperor has more than twenty sons, all of whom you know. His eldest son is resolute and valiant, winning men's trust and inspiring their valor. Once he ascends the throne, he will certainly appoint Meng Tian as prime minister. It is clear, then, that you, my lord, will never return home bearing your marquisate seal."

"I received the Emperor's command to instruct Hu Hai," Gao continued, "teaching him affairs of state these several years, and I have never seen him commit a fault. He is kind, sincere, and generous, despising wealth while honoring the worthy. Though quick of mind, he is reserved of speech, and he treats all with courtesy and respect. None of the Emperor's other sons can compare with him in these qualities. He would make a worthy heir. Do you not agree?"

"I am but a commoner from the lane of Shangcai," said Li Si. "By imperial favor I was raised to be prime minister, ennobled as a marquis, and my children and grandchildren have all enjoyed the highest honors and richest stipends. Therefore the ruler entrusted me with the state's survival, safety, and stability. How could I betray such trust? Loyal ministers do not shrink from death when seeking to fulfill their duty; dutiful sons do not shirk hardship to avoid peril. Each official need only remain steadfast at his post. Speak no more of this—you would only cause me to commit an offense."