扁鹊仓公列传 — Shiji

Bian Que was a native of Zheng in the region of Bohai. His surname was Qin and his personal name was Yue Ren. In his youth he served as the steward of an inn. When the traveler Chang Sang Jun stopped there, Bian Que alone recognized him as extraordinary and treated him with constant deference. Chang Sang Jun, for his part, understood that Bian Que was no ordinary man. After more than ten years of coming and going, Chang Sang Jun called Bian Que aside privately and said to him: "I possess secret medical formulas, and as I am old, I wish to pass them on to you. I ask only that you not reveal them to others." Bian Que replied: "I am honored to accept." Chang Sang Jun then produced medicines from his own collection and gave them to Bian Que, instructing him: "Take these with water collected from pools in high places for thirty days, and you will then be able to perceive things." He thereupon transferred all his secret medical texts to Bian Que and vanished without a trace, as though he were not of mortal kind. Following Chang Sang Jun's instructions, Bian Que took the medicine for thirty days, and could now see through walls to perceive people on the other side. Using this ability to examine the sick, he could perceive the focal points of disease in the five viscera completely. He used pulse diagnosis merely as a formal pretext.

Bian Que practiced medicine sometimes in Qi, sometimes in Zhao. It was in Zhao that he was known as Bian Que. During the reign of Duke Zhao of Jin, the great officers were powerful while the ducal clan was weak. Zhao Jianzi, a great officer, held exclusive control of state affairs. Zhao Jianzi fell ill and lost consciousness for five days. The great officers were all alarmed and summoned Bian Que. Upon entering to examine the patient, Bian Que emerged and Dong Anyu asked him about the illness. Bian Que replied: "His blood and pulse are in order. Why should you be surprised? In times past, Duke Mu of Qin experienced the same symptoms and lay unconscious for seven days before waking. On the day he awoke, he told Gongsun Zhi and Ziyu: 'I was very happy at the place where the Lord God dwelled. The reason I stayed so long was that I had been learning something.' The Lord God told me: 'The state of Jin will fall into great disorder, and for five generations its people will have no peace. Afterward it will produce a hegemon, but that hegemon will die before growing old. The hegemon's sons will command that the state conduct its affairs in such a way that men and women become indistinguishable.' Gongsun Zhi recorded this and filed it away, and thus the Qin records were produced. What Duke Xian did that caused chaos, what Duke Wen did that established hegemony, and what Duke Xiang did when he defeated the Qin army at Yao and then gave himself over to licentiousness—all this was what you have heard. Now Your Lordship's illness is identical to Duke Mu's. Within three days you will certainly recover, and when you do, you will have something to say."

Two and a half days later, Zhao Jianzi awoke. He told the great officers: "I was very happy at the place where the Lord God dwelled. I traveled with the hundred gods through the vast heavens, where elaborate music played nine movements and the ceremonial dance was performed—altogether unlike the music of the Three Dynasties. The sounds moved my heart. A bear appeared and tried to claw me, but the Lord God commanded me to shoot it. I hit the bear and it died. A black bear came next, and I shot it as well—it also died. The Lord God was greatly pleased and gave me two boxes, both with matching contents. I saw a boy beside the Lord God, and the Lord God entrusted a fine hound to me, saying: 'When your son grows strong, I will give him to you.' The Lord God told me: 'The state of Jin will decline through successive generations and perish after seven rulers. The Ying surname will severely defeat the people of Zhou west of Fan Kui, but it too will not endure.'"

Dong Anyu recorded this account and filed it away. When he reported Bian Que's prediction to Zhao Jianzi, the latter granted Bian Que forty thousand mu of fields.

Later, Bian Que passed through Guo. The Prince of Guo had died, and Bian Que arrived at the Guo palace gate, where he asked a noble attendant who was fond of medical literature: "What illness did the prince have? The capital is conducting extensive exorcism rituals beyond all other affairs." The attendant replied: "The prince's illness arises from an irregularity in his blood and qi, which become entangled and cannot circulate properly. When it erupts suddenly outward, it becomes an internal injury. His vital essence cannot restrain the pathogenic qi, and the pathogenic qi accumulates without release. Thus the yin is restrained while the yang rushes ahead, and he has died of a sudden collapse."

Bian Que asked: "When did he die?" The attendant answered: "From cockcrow until now." Bian Que asked: "Has he been placed in his coffin?" The attendant said: "Not yet. He has been dead less than half a day."

Bian Que then said: "I am Qin Yue Ren, a native of Bohai in the region of Zheng. My home is in Zheng. I have never been so fortunate as to obtain an audience with the prince's radiance or to serve at his side. I heard that the prince met an untimely death, but I believe I can restore him to life."

After a long while, Bian Que sighed and said to heaven: "Your approach to medicine is like peering at the heavens through a tube or examining patterns by looking through a crack. My methods, however, do not depend on feeling the pulse, observing the complexion, listening to the voice, or studying the physical form. I can determine the yin by discussing the yang, and the yang by discussing the yin. The illness must manifest on the great exterior—if it lies within a thousand li, the skilled diagnostician can still perceive it. There are many such cases, and they cannot be enumerated fully. If you think my words lack sincerity, then enter and examine the prince. You will hear that his ears are ringing and his nose is flaring. Run your hands along both his thighs to where they meet—he should still be warm."

Upon hearing Bian Que's words, the attendant's eyes swam and he could not blink, his tongue rose and would not fall. He went in and reported everything to the Lord of Guo. The Lord of Guo was greatly astonished and came out to meet Bian Que at the palace gate, saying: "I have heard of your noble character for a long time, but never had the opportunity to pay my respects. Sir, you have honored our small state, and I am fortunate to have you look upon us. For a marginal kingdom like ours, this is most fortunate indeed. With you present, our prince may live; without you, he will be cast into the ravines and ditches, gone forever with no return."

Before he had finished speaking, he choked with sobs, his spirit scattered, tears streamed down his face, glistening on his eyelashes, his grief beyond control, his very countenance transformed.

Bian Que then instructed his disciple Zi Yang to prepare acupuncture needles and stones, and to apply them to the three yang points and the five meeting points. After a short while, the prince revived. He then ordered Zi Bao to prepare a poultice of five-part compresses, using an eight-part decoction boiled and applied alternately to both flanks. The prince was able to sit up. After further regulating his yin and yang, and with only twenty days of tonic treatment, he was fully restored.

The world thereafter believed that Bian Que could restore the dead. Bian Que said: "I cannot restore the dead. It is simply that those who should recover, I am able to help rise."

Bian Que traveled to Qi, where Duke Huan of Qi received him as a guest. Upon entering court, Bian Que said: "Your Grace has an illness in the pores between skin and flesh. If left untreated, it will deepen." Duke Huan replied: "I have no illness." When Bian Que left, Duke Huan said to his attendants: "The physician loves profit. He wishes to claim credit for treating nonexistent ailments."

Five days later, Bian Que came again and said: "Your Grace has an illness in the blood vessels. If left untreated, it may deepen." Duke Huan said: "I have no illness." When Bian Que left, Duke Huan was displeased.

Five days later, Bian Que came again and said: "Your Grace has an illness in the stomach and intestines. If left untreated, it will deepen." Duke Huan made no reply. When Bian Que left, Duke Huan was displeased.

Five days later, Bian Que came again. When he saw Duke Huan, he retreated and fled. Duke Huan sent someone to ask the reason. Bian Que said: "When the illness is in the pores between skin and flesh, it can be reached by soups and poultices. When it is in the blood vessels, it can be reached by acupuncture and stone therapy. When it is in the stomach and intestines, it can be reached by wines and fermented liquors. When it reaches the marrow, even the Lord of Life could do nothing about it. Now His Grace's illness has reached the marrow, so I dare not make any further proposals."

Five days later, Duke Huan's body began to ache. He sent for Bian Que, but Bian Que had already fled. Duke Huan soon died.

This illustrates how, if a sage could foreknow the subtle beginnings of illness and secure the early services of a skilled physician, disease could be checked and life preserved.

What people worry about is the proliferation of illness; what physicians worry about is the scarcity of remedies. Therefore, there are six conditions beyond treatment: arrogance and willful disregard of reason—first reason for not treating; valuing money above health—second reason; inability to regulate food and clothing—third reason; disordered yin and yang with unstable visceral qi—fourth reason; a body too emaciated to receive medicine—fifth reason; disbelief in the physician and faith in sorcerers—sixth reason. When any one of these applies, the illness becomes extremely difficult to treat.

Bian Que's fame spread throughout the realm. When he passed through Handan, he learned that the people there honored women, so he became a gynecologist. When he passed through Luoyang, he learned that the people of Zhou cherished the elderly, so he became a specialist in eye and ear ailments and paralysis. When he entered Xianyang, he learned that the people of Qin loved children, so he became a pediatrician. He adapted his practice to local customs.

The chief physician of Qin, Li Xi, recognizing that his own skills did not match Bian Que's, hired an assassin to kill him. To this day, all who practice pulse diagnosis trace their methods to Bian Que.

The Grand Granary Chief was the official in charge of the granary at Linzi in Qi. His surname was Chunyu and his personal name was Yi. From youth he delighted in medical formulas and techniques. In the eighth year of Empress Dowager Gao's regency, he received further instruction from a fellow countiesman, the titled noble Yang Qing of Yuanli, who was over seventy years old and had no heir. Yang Qing instructed Yi to discard all his former formulas, declaring them incorrect. He then transferred to Yi all his secret medical texts, including the pulse classics of the Yellow Emperor and Bian Que, works on diagnosing illness through the five colors, on determining life and death, resolving uncertainties, and establishing treatability. He also taught him the treatise on medicines—all extremely precise. After three years of study, Yi practiced medicine for others, and his diagnoses of life and death proved highly reliable. Nevertheless, because he traveled about among the feudal lords and did not settle into domestic life, or sometimes refused to treat patients, many families came to resent him.

In the fourth year of Emperor Wen's reign, someone petitioned the throne that Yi should be transported west to Chang'an to receive a criminal sentence. Yi had five daughters, who followed him in tears. Enraged, Yi cursed: "To have daughters and no sons—when urgency comes, there is no one to send!" His youngest daughter, Ti Ying, was heartbroken by her father's words and insisted on accompanying him west. She submitted a petition to the throne: "Your handmaid's father is an official, praised throughout Qi for his integrity and fairness. Now he faces criminal punishment. Your handmaid grieves deeply that the dead cannot be revived and the mutilated cannot be restored. Though he may wish to reform and renew himself, there is no path by which to do so, and such resolution will never be possible. Your handmaid wishes to become a palace servant to redeem her father's punishment, so that he may reform and begin anew."

When the Emperor read this petition, he was moved by her sincerity. That same year, the law imposing bodily punishments was abolished.

While Yi was living at home, the Emperor issued an edict summoning him to answer questions about how many patients he had treated, how many lives or deaths he had determined, and what were their names. The edict read: "Former Granary Chief Yi, what are your medical specializations, and what is your capacity for treating illness? Do you have your own medical texts, or not? From whom did you receive your training, and for how many years? What cases have you verified? From what county and village are you? What were the illnesses, and what were the outcomes after treatment? Answer in full detail."

"Qi Cheng, the assistant censor, came to me complaining of a headache. I felt his pulse and told him: 'Your illness is serious and should not be discussed.' I then dismissed him and spoke privately only to his younger brother Chang: 'This is an abscess developing internally between the stomach and intestines. In five days you will see swelling, and in eight days you will die from the discharge of pus.' Cheng's illness arose from drinking heavily and excessive indulgence. Cheng died exactly on schedule."

"How I knew his illness: when I felt his pulse, I detected stagnant liver qi. The liver qi was turbid and sluggish—this is an internal barrier condition. The Pulse Classic states: 'When the pulse is long and taut and does not alternate with the four seasons, the disease lies primarily in the liver. When there is harmony, the channels govern disease; when there is disharmony, the connecting vessels are impaired.' When the channels govern disease and there is harmony, the illness arises from within the tendons and marrow. When disharmony causes the pulse to become erratic and engorged, the illness arises from drinking and indulgence. How I knew that in five days there would be swelling and in eight days pus and death: when I felt his pulse, the lesser yang pulse was just beginning to lose its rhythm. The loss of rhythm indicates channel disease, and the disease had progressed past the individual, who then perished. The connecting vessels govern disease, and at that time the lesser yang pulse was at its first boundary. Hence there was internal heat but no pus yet. When it reached the midpoint, it entered the lesser yang zone. By the eighth day, when pus developed, death followed. The heat rising upward affected the yang brightness, rotting the connecting vessels. The movement in the connecting vessels caused the pulse to become bound, and when bound it decays, so the vessels became entangled. The heat had risen to the head, causing movement, and thus the headache."

The middle son of the King of Qi's young sons fell ill. Summoning me to examine his pulse, I diagnosed a qi blockage. The illness caused restlessness and depression, inability to eat, and occasional vomiting of froth. It had developed from worry and frequent nausea when eating. I immediately prepared a qi-downward decoction. After one day the qi descended; after two days he could eat; after three days he was fully recovered. To understand this child's illness: upon examining his pulse, I found heart qi—turbid, agitated, and erratic. This was a yang disease of the collateral channels. The classical diagnostic method states: "When the pulse comes rapidly but leaves with difficulty, without uniformity, the disease lies in the heart." When the entire body is feverish and the pulse is vigorous, this is 'double yang.' Double yang disturbs the heart governor. Hence, restlessness and inability to eat indicate pathology in the collateral channels. Pathology in the collateral channels causes bleeding upward, and bleeding upward is fatal. This arises from a sorrowful heart—illness born of worry.

The Chamberlain of the Masters of Writing, named Xun, fell ill. All physicians diagnosed it as something lodged in the middle and attempted treatment with acupuncture. I examined him and said: "This is protruding hernia. It causes inability to urinate or defecate." Xun replied: "I have been unable to urinate or defecate for three days." I gave him Fire Equal decoction. With the first dose he could urinate; with the second he had a full evacuation; with the third dose he was cured. The illness arose from internal causes. To diagnose Xun's condition: when feeling his pulse, the right energy was urgent, with no pulse in the five visceral organs. The right pulse was large and rapid. The rapidity indicated heat bubbling upward in the middle and lower regions. Left indicated downward, right indicated upward—none corresponded to the five visceral organs, hence 'protruding hernia.' There was heat in the middle, accounting for the dark urine.

The Director of the Imperial Workshop, Xin, fell ill. I entered to examine his pulse and said: "This is heat disease with qi disorder. However, since he sweats in summer and his pulse is only slightly weakened, he will not die." I asked: "How did this illness arise?" He said: "Indeed, it happened when I was serving as an envoy to Chu in winter. When I reached Yangzhou River in Ju County, the bridge was badly damaged. I gripped the carriage pole, unwilling to cross. The horse spooked and threw me into the water. I nearly drowned. The officials rescued me. When pulled from the water, my clothes were soaked through. After some time, I felt cold internally, then feverish—burning like fire. Even now I cannot tolerate cold." I immediately prepared Decoction of Assuaging and Fire Equal to drive out the heat. After the first dose, the sweating stopped entirely. After the second dose, the fever departed. After the third dose, the illness was cured. He continued taking the medicine for twenty days, and had no illness at all. To know Xin's condition: when feeling his pulse, it showed concurrent yin. The classical method states: "Heat disease with yin and yang in collision means death." His pulse did not collide but showed concurrent yin. A concurrent yin pulse that is clear and harmonious indicates recovery. Though the heat had not entirely departed, he would survive. Kidney qi showed temporary turbidity at the Taiyin pulse orifice with sparse beats—this indicates water qi. The kidneys govern water, which is how I knew this. If treatment had been delayed, it would have transformed into fever and chills.

The Queen Mother of Qi fell ill. Summoning me to examine her pulse, I said: "Wind dan has invaded the bladder, causing difficulty with urination and defecation, and dark urine." I gave her Fire Equal decoction. After one dose, urination and defecation normalized. After the second dose, the illness was cured, and urination returned to normal. The illness arose from sweating profusely. Sweating profusely means removing clothes while perspiration still glistened. To know the Queen Mother's illness: I examined her pulse and felt the Taiyin orifice was damp—this indicates wind. The classical method states: "When pressing deeply yields a large and firm pulse, or when lifting yields a large and tight pulse, the disease lies in the kidneys." However, the kidney pulse was the opposite—large and agitated. The large pulse indicates bladder qi; the agitation indicates internal heat with dark urine.

Cao Shanfu of Zhangwuli in Qi fell ill. I examined his pulse and said: "This is lung wasting thirst, complicated by fever and chills." I immediately told him: "Death—you cannot be cured. Even with the best nursing care, this should not be treated by medicine." The classical method states: "In three days he will become insane, rising wildly, wanting to run about. In five days he will die." He died precisely on schedule. Shanfu's illness arose from intense anger followed by sexual intercourse. To know his illness: I felt his pulse, which indicated heat in lung qi. The classical method states: "Uneven, without drumbeat—this is physical deterioration." This indicates the high and distant numbers of the five visceral organs with channel disease. Hence, when felt, the pulse was uneven with skipped beats. Unevenness means blood does not remain in its place; skipped beats mean attacks come in succession, sometimes agitated, sometimes large. This rupture of the two collateral channels means death and incurability. The complication of fever and chills indicates the patient has suffered physical collapse. Physical collapse means the form is deteriorated; a deteriorated form should not undergo cauterization, needling, or treatment with toxic medicines.

Before I arrived to examine him, the royal physician of Qi had already treated Shanfu. He cauterized the left Shaoyang pulse orifice and gave him Pinellia Pills. The patient immediately developed severe diarrhea, with emptiness in the abdomen. Then he cauterized the Shaoyang pulse again, severely damaging the liver's rigid energy. This compounded the damage to the patient's qi, hence the fever and chills. The reason for the three-day onset of madness: one channel of the liver connects to and terminates at the breast below, opening into the Yangming. Hence, when the channel ruptures, the Yangming pulse opens. When the Yangming pulse is injured, madness with running follows. The reason for death in five days: the liver and heart are separated by only five fen. Hence, at the end of five days, death occurs.

Pan Manru, Chief Censor of Qi, fell ill with lower abdominal pain. I examined his pulse and said: "This is accumulated mass." I said to the Grand Coachman Rao and the Minister of Works Yao: "If the Chief Censor cannot restrain himself internally, he will die within thirty days. Twenty-some days later, he will die from bloody urine." The illness arose from heavy drinking combined with sexual activity. To know Pan Manru's illness: I felt his pulse, which was deep, small, and weak, with sudden combinations—this is spleen qi. The right pulse orifice showed tightness and smallness, with large rapid beats—this indicates mass qi. The successive attacks of the channels led to death in thirty days. When all three yin pulses beat in collision, the outcome follows the rule. When all three yang pulses beat in collision, the decision lies with the urgent period. When one beats while another skips, the death is near. Hence, with all three yin pulses in collision, bloody urine occurs as described.

Yangxuhou's Prime Minister Zhao Zhang fell ill. Summoning me, all physicians diagnosed cold in the middle. I examined his pulse and said: "This is penetrating wind. With penetrating wind, food and drink pass through the throat and immediately exit without retention." The method states: "Death in five days," but he lived ten more days. The illness arose from drinking. To know Zhao Zhang's illness: I felt his pulse, which was slippery—this indicates internal wind. Food and drink passing through the throat and immediately exiting without retention should cause death in five days according to the boundary method. He lived ten additional days because he was fond of congee. Hence, the middle organs were full, and with full middle organs, one survives past the deadline. The master said: "Those who can retain food survive past the deadline; those who cannot retain food die before the deadline."

The Prince of Jinan fell ill. Summoning me to examine his pulse, I said: "Wind syncope with chest fullness." I prescribed medicinal wine, and after three dan, the illness was cured. It arose from sweating while lying on the ground. To know the Prince's illness: when feeling his pulse, I detected wind—the heart pulse was turbid. The disease pattern is: "When excessive invasion enters the yang channels, yang qi is exhausted and yin qi enters. Yin qi expands, cold qi rises above and heat qi descends below, causing chest fullness." Sweating while lying on the ground: when I felt his pulse, it was yin in qi. Yin qi means the disease must enter the middle, emerging with sweating.

When the Prince of Jinan mentioned that his mother had hot and restless feet, I told her: "This is heat syncope. Cauterize three positions on each foot, pressing without drawing blood, and the illness will immediately cease." The illness arose from drinking wine until severely intoxicated.

Profuse sweating follows the pattern of severe internal illness—hair and complexion remain lustrous, pulse does not weaken. This is also internal disease. The middle court physician had a tooth ailment. I cauterized his left Da Yangming pulse and prescribed a Kushen decoction, gargled three times daily. After five or six days, the illness was cured. It arose from wind and from sleeping with his mouth open while eating without gargling.

The Beauty of Zichuan Wang was pregnant but could not deliver. Summoning me, I went and gave her a measure of Langdang medicine with wine. Immediately she delivered. I again felt her pulse, which was agitated. Agitation indicates excess disease, so I gave her Eliminating Stone decoction. She bled—the blood was like bean fragments, five or six pieces.

The Prime Minister's servant followed the morning court into the palace. I saw him eating outside the palace gate and observed from his complexion that he had a diseased qi. I told the eunuch Ping. Ping was skilled at pulse diagnosis, having studied under me. I showed him the servant's illness and told him: "This is spleen damage. When spring comes, there will be blockage preventing eating and drinking. According to the pattern, in summer there will be bloody diarrhea and death." Ping immediately went to tell the Prime Minister: "Your servant is ill—the illness is severe and his death date is near." The Prime Minister asked: "How do you know?" He replied: "When you entered the palace at morning court, your servant was eating fully at the palace gate. Ping and Cang Gong stood there, and Ping showed me, saying, 'If the illness is like this, death.'" The Prime Minister summoned the servant and asked: "Is your servant ill?" The servant said: "I am not ill—I have no pain in my body." When spring came, he indeed fell ill. In the fourth month, he had bloody diarrhea and died. To know the servant's illness: spleen qi circulates to all five visceral organs. When damage spreads to the channels and intersects them, damage to the spleen becomes visible. Looking at him, there was a killing yellow; examining him closely, there was a deathly blue-green such as this. The other physicians did not understand—they thought it was a great parasite, not knowing it was spleen damage.

The reason for death in spring: the stomach qi is yellow, yellow is earth qi, and earth cannot overcome wood, hence death in spring. The reason for death in summer: the diagnostic method states: "When illness is severe but the pulse is clear and harmonious, this is called inner closure." With inner closure illness, the person feels no pain—only a vague sense of unease. If one disease is added, death occurs in mid-spring. If recovery proceeds favorably, it lasts one season. The reason for death in the fourth month: at the time of diagnosis, the patient was in a favorable recovery period. Those in a favorable recovery period are still corpulent. The patient's illness arose from frequent episodes of sweating, followed by exposure to fire and then to great wind.

The Prince of Zichuan fell ill. Summoning me to examine his pulse, I said: "Syndrome affecting the head as severe, with headache and fever, causing restlessness." I immediately applied cold water to his head and needled both foot Yangming pulses—three positions on each side. The illness ceased immediately. It arose from sleeping with wet hair. The diagnosis was the same as before—heat from the head spreading to the shoulders.

The attendant woman Han of the Prince of Jinan complained of lumbar back pain with fever and chills. All physicians diagnosed fever and chills. I examined her pulse and said: "This is internal cold with blocked menstruation." I administered medication, and her menstruation flowed, curing the illness. Her illness arose from longing for a man but being unable to obtain one. To know Han Nü's illness: when feeling her pulse, I examined it and found it was a kidney pulse—sluggish and not connecting. Sluggish and not connecting means the flow is difficult and firm. Hence, blocked menstruation. The liver pulse was bowstring and emerged from the left mouth opening. Hence, longing for a man but being unable to obtain it.

The woman Bo Wu from Fantanli in Linzi had a serious illness. All physicians diagnosed severe fever and chills, saying she would die and could not be cured. I examined her pulse and said: "This is tapeworm mass."

The anus weighed twelve liang. According to the 'Huozhi Liezhuan' chapter of the Records of the Grand Historian, a 'liang' was an ancient unit of weight roughly equivalent to just over three grams in modern terms, making twelve liang approximately thirty-six grams; it was used to weigh relatively heavy objects. This entry demonstrates that at that time even the weighing of important bodily parts had achieved refined quantification. Moreover, twelve liang was also commonly used to measure medicinal ingredients and metals, reflecting the sophistication of the contemporary system of weights and measures.

It was eight cun in diameter, its caliber slightly more than two cun, and its length two chi eight cun. The 'Lüli Zhi' chapter of the Records of the Grand Historian records that a 'chi' was ten cun, and a 'cun' was approximately just over three centimeters, so 'eight cun in diameter' was roughly twenty-four centimeters; 'a caliber of slightly more than two cun' indicates that the opening exceeded two cun by a little; and 'a length of two chi eight cun' was about eighty-four centimeters. Such dimensional records were commonly used to describe vessels, weapons, or body parts, in order to show scale and proportion.

The received grain amounted to nine sheng, three ge, and one-eighth of a ge. The “Treatise on Harmonics and the Calendar” in the Records of the Grand Historian records that a sheng equals ten ge, a ge equals ten cuo, and “one-eighth of a ge” means one-eighth of a ge. “Nine sheng, three ge, and one-eighth ge” corresponds to somewhat over ninety modern sheng. This capacity measure was frequently used to record quantities of grain, cloth, or liquid, thereby indicating economic scale and tax statistics.